Armenia Overview Country Overview The ancient country of Armenia lies on the southern slope of the Armenian Mountains in the Lesser Caucasus, bordered by Georgia, Turkey, Azerbaijan and Iran. Yerevan, the capital of Armenia, is one of the oldest cities in the world, founded nearly 2800 years ago during the time of ancient Babylon. Most of the old town was demolished in the 1930s, ostensibly to upgrade standards of public health. Rebuilt, its architecture is solid, sometimes imposing and essentially Soviet in character. Lake Sevan, 70km (43 miles) east of Yerevan, is the largest lake in the Caucasus, much praised for its pure waters, stunning setting and delicious salmon trout. Armenian cooking is based on lamb, either grilled and served as shashlik with flat bread, or prepared as soup (bozbash) or stew. Armenian brandies are excellent. Locals are proud to inform visitors that Winston Churchill always insisted on Armenian in preference to French brandy. Restaurants and nightclubs are increasing in number, especially in Yerevan. Opera, theatre and ballet performances are cheap and of a high standard. General Information Area: 29,743 sq km (11,484 sq miles). Population: 3,330,099 (official estimate 2002). Population Density: 111.9 per sq km. Capital: Yerevan. Population: 1,248,700 (official estimate 1999). GEOGRAPHY: Armenia lies on the southern slopes of the Armenian Mountains in the Lesser Caucasus and is bordered by Georgia, Turkey, Azerbaijan and Iran. Its highest peak is Mount Aragats, 4090m (13,415ft), and even its deepest valleys lie 450-700m (1200-1870ft) above sea level. Its biggest lake is Lake Sevan in the east. Government: Republic. Gained independence from the Soviet Union in 1991. Head of State: President Robert Kocharian since 1998. Head of Government: Prime Minister Andranik Markaryan since 2000. Language: Armenian. Russian is usually understood, but rarely used; Kurdish is sometimes used in broadcasting as 56,000 Kurds inhabit Armenia. Religion: Armenia is the oldest Christian nation in the world, its conversion dating from the year AD 310. The Armenian Apostolic Church developed separately from both the Catholic and Orthodox branches of Christianity. It remains the dominant church, although there are Catholic and Protestant communities and a Russian Orthodox minority. Time: GMT + 3 (GMT + 4 from last Sunday in March to Saturday before last Sunday in October). Electricity: 220 volts AC, 50Hz. Telephone IDD is available to Yerevan. Country code: 374. Yerevan city code: 1. Outgoing calls to other CIS countries can be made by dialling with the appropriate codes, but only with difficulty. Outgoing international calls to other countries must be made through the operator. Some hotels and many businesses now have satellite links. Mobile telephone GSM 900 network is in use. The main network operators include Armentel (website: www.armentel.com). Coverage is limited to Yerevan and the west of the country. Internet ISPs include Arminco (website: www.arminco.com) and Yerphi, set up and run by the Yerevan Physics Institute Computer Center (website: www.yerphi.am). Post International postal services are available to most countries but may be slow and unreliable. The main post office is located at 22 Sarya Str, Yerevan; post office opening hours are Mon-Fri 0900-1700. Press The main newspapers are Hayastan, Aravot, Azg and Yerkir, all of which are published only in Armenian (Russian editions have been discontinued since the Russian minority in the republic has dropped from eight per cent to less than two per cent in recent years). Golos Armenii (The Voice of Armenia) and Respublika Armenia survive as the main Russian-language papers. Noyan Tapan, an English-language weekly circulated primarily among the foreign missions and small foreign business community, is published by an independent information agency based in Yerevan. BBC World Service and Voice of America frequencies: From time to time these change. BBC (website: www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice): MHz 17.79 15.58 11.76 1.413 Voice of America (website: www.voa.gov): MHz 15.21 11.82 9.760 1.197 Fax Faxes can be sent from InfoCom offices and travel agencies. Telegram Telegrams can be sent from post offices and larger hotels. Passport/Visa   Passport Required? Visa Required? Return Ticket Required? British Yes Yes No Australian Yes Yes No Canadian Yes Yes No USA Yes Yes No OtherEU Yes Yes No Japanese Yes Yes No PASSPORTS: Passport valid for at least six months after date of departure required by all. VISAS: Required by all except nationals of CIS countries. Types of visa and cost: Single-entry: £35 (21 days, no invitation necessary); Multiple-entry (by official invitation only): £40. Transit (double-entry): £18. In urgent cases, Single-entry visas can be issued within one to two days at an extra cost. Enquire at the embassy for further details. Note: Tourists also need to pay a state tax of AMD10,000 (about US$20) at the airports. Validity: Single-entry visas obtained with a letter of invitation endorsed by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs are valid for three months, those obtained without an invitation for 21 days. Multiple-entry visas are valid for three months. Visas must be used within 90 days of date of issue. Application to: Embassy (or Consular Section at Embassy); see Contact Addresses section. Application requirements: (a) Completed application form. (b) One recent passport-size photo. (c) Passport valid ofr at least four months. (d) Visa fee. (e) Postal applications should be sent by registered mail or by courier. (f) Official invitation letter, duly authorised in Armenia, for Single-entry visa with invitation or Multiple-entry visa (if applicable). Working days required: One week to ten days. Applications may not be made earlier than three months before departure, and not later than ten working days before departure, whether by post or personal visit. Urgent visas can be processsed in one to two days for a higher fee (see above). Money Currency: Armenian Dram (AMD) = 100 luma. Dram notes are printed in denominations of AMD20,000, 5000, 1000, 500, 200, 100, 50, 25 and 10. Coins are in denominations of 1 Dram and 50 and 20 luma. Currency exchange: Foreign currencies can be exchanged at the airports, banks and most hotels and shops during normal opening hours. US Dollars are the most widely recognised foreign currency. Visitors using the national currency are advised to carry plenty of small change as some shops and, particularly markets, may be unable to accept large denominations. There are only five ATMs in Yerevan operated by HSBC. Credit & debit cards: These are accepted in a few large hotels. Travellers cheques: These are accepted in a few shops and hotels. Travellers are advised to take travellers cheques in US Dollars. Currency restrictions: The import and export of local currency is unlimited. The import and export of foreign currency is unlimited, provided declared on arrival; however, cash amounts in excess of US$10,000 or equivalent are prohibited and must be transferred via a bank. Exchange rate indicators The following figures are included as a guide to the movements of the Armenian Dram against Sterling and the US Dollar: Date May ’02 Aug ’02 Nov ’02 Feb ’03 £1.00= 844.88 850.19 882.64 926.69 $1.00= 579.76 559.00 558.14 582.00 Banking hours: Mon-Fri 0900-1500. Exchange Offices are open until midnight and also operate at weekends and on public holidays. Duty Free The following goods may be imported into Armenia by persons of 18 years of age or older without incurring customs duty: 400 cigarettes; 2l or one bottle of alcoholic beverage; 5kg of perfume (or perfume to the value of US$500) for personal use; other goods up to the amount of US$500, for personal use only. Note: It is advisable to declare valuables on arrival. Prohibited imports: Weapons and ammunition, narcotics, pornography, fruit and vegetables. Prohibited exports: Works of art and antiques (unless permission has been granted by the Ministry of Culture). An export tax of approximately US$10 is payable on each item. Contact the Embassy for further information (see Contact Addresses section). Public Holidays Jan 1-2 2003 New Year. Jan 6 Armenian Christmas. Mar 8 International Women’s Day. Apr 7 Motherhood and Beauty Day. Apr 18 Good Friday. Apr 24 Genocide Memorial Day. May 9 Victory and Peace Day. May 28 First Republic Day. Jul 5 Constitution Day. Sep 21 Independence Day. Dec 7 Earthquake Memorial Day. Dec 31 New Year’s Eve. Jan 1-2 2004 New Year. Jan 6 Armenian Christmas. Mar 8 International Women’s Day. Apr 7 Motherhood and Beauty Day. Apr 9 Good Friday. Apr 24 Genocide Memorial Day. May 9 Victory and Peace Day. May 28 First Republic Day. Jul 5 Constitution Day. Sep 21 Independence Day. Dec 7 Earthquake Memorial Day. Dec 31 New Year’s Eve. Health   Special Precautions Certificate Required Yellow Fever No No Cholera No No Typhoid and Polio 1 N/A Malaria 2 N/A 1: Typhoid fever is common. Poliomyelitis eradication activities are underway but the disease should still be assumed to be a threat. 2: There is some risk of malaria from June to October in some villages in the Ararat Valley. No risk in main tourist areas. Food & drink: All water should be regarded as being a potential health risk. Water used for drinking, brushing teeth or making ice should have first been boiled or otherwise sterilised. Only eat well-cooked meat and fish, preferably served hot. Pork, salad and mayonnaise may carry increased risk. Vegetables should be cooked and fruit peeled. Milk is pasteurised and dairy products should be safe for consumption, however, the incidence of communicable diseases among livestock is increasing because of a breakdown in vaccination programmes. Other risks: Diphtheria, hepatitis B and E, tick-borne encephalitis, brucellosis, echinococcosis and leishmaniasis (cutaneous) may all occur. Visitors are advised to take precautions which may include vaccination. There may be a risk of rabies although there has been no reported incidence in animals or humans since 1997. If you are bitten, seek medical advice without delay. For more information consult the Health appendix. Health care: A reciprocal agreement for urgent medical treatment exists with the UK, although proof of UK residence is required. Power shortages and disrupted medical supplies have undermined normal health services to such a degree that travellers would be well advised to consider a health insurance policy guaranteeing emergency evacuation in case of serious accident or illness, as medical insurance is not often valid within the country. Doctors and hospitals often expect immediate cash payment for health services. Travellers are also advised to take a supply of those medicines that they are likely to require (but check first that they may be legally imported) as there is a severe shortage of even the most basic medical supplies, such as disposable needles, anaesthetics and antibiotics. Elderly travellers and those with existing health problems may be at risk owing to inadequate medical facilities. Travel - International AIR: Armenian Airlines (R3) (website: www.armenianairlines.com) operates weekly flights linking Yerevan with Paris, Amsterdam, Frankfurt/M, Athens, Beirut and Tehran and twice weekly flights to Fujairah, UAE. Lack of demand, unreliable fuel supplies and an uneconomic fare structure has resulted in greatly reduced services to other CIS republics. British Mediterranean (a franchise partner of British Airways) operates three flights per week from London to Yerevan. Aeroflot and Armenian Airlines operate flights to Yerevan from Moscow; these are often subject to delays and cancellations. For political reasons there are no direct international transport links between Armenia and Azerbaijan; Georgia is sometimes used as a stopover point. International airports: Zvartnots (EVN) 10km (6 miles) from Yerevan. Buses and taxis are available to the city centre. Buses run every 15 minutes between 0700-2100 (travel time – 30 minutes). Departure tax: US$20 per person (usually payable in local currency). Although this is normally paid at the airport, visitors staying in the large hotels may sometimes pay at their hotel, and present the receipt at the airport check-in desk. RAIL: Armenia’s rail links to Azerbaijan and Turkey have been closed indefinitely but international lines do run to Georgia and Iran. Passengers travelling to Georgia should be aware of the possibility of theft or robbery. ROAD: A road link between Armenia and Iran, the Kajaran highway, has become the most important international road link. A road linking Yerevan to the Georgian capital, Tbilisi, has a bad reputation for highway robbery, although efforts by the Georgian authorities to enforce law and order are reported to be paying off. There are no road crossings into Turkey. It is possible to travel by road to the enclave of Nagorno Karabakh, however, it is essential to obtain a visa from the permanent representative of Nagorno Karabakh in Yerevan. Travel - Internal Note: Internal travel, especially by air, may be disrupted by fuel shortages and other problems. AIR: Yerevan has a small domestic airport, as well as an international airport, which offers some flights to other destinations in Armenia. ROAD: The road network comprises 7705km (4788 miles). Road surfaces can be very poor, even in the case of major highways, and care should be taken to avoid children and animals on the road. Supplies of petrol, diesel and oil are at present limited. It is common practice to flag down private cars as well as official taxis. Local drivers have a tendency to flout traffic regulations and ignore signals. Visitors should take care when driving or crossing the road. Coach: Coaches run between the major centres of population. URBAN: There is a small underground system in Yerevan. Buses and trolleybuses run in the city. Taxis are available in the city centre or can be ordered by telephone. Chauffeur-driven cars are available but are expensive. It is advisable to obtain them through official channels, such as hotels or travel agencies in Yerevan. Accommodation Hotels previously run by Intourist are now mostly being privatised. In Yerevan the new Armenia Hotel is an Armenian/Marriott joint venture, functioning exclusively in foreign currency and supplied with power from its own generators. The Hotel Hrazdan, mainly occupied by foreign missions, also has its own generator, but is state owned and functions primarily as a guest-house for official visitors. Private individuals may occasionally be allowed to stay there by special arrangement. The Hotel Dvin, opposite the Hrazdan, is less comfortable but has privileged supplies of electricity and running water. It has a satellite telephone service for guests. Information on other hotels can be obtained from Armintour. There are tourist information bureaux in the Armenia Hotel (Republic Square) and the newly refurbished Ani Plaza Hotel (19 Sayat Nova Avenue). Tours and other activities can be organised through these bureaux. Introduction Armenia is an ancient country that was once counted as a great power, if only for a short period. The realm of King Tigranes II, in the first century BC, stretched from the Caspian Sea to Syria and the Mediterranean, before it was conquered by the Romans. YEREVAN: The present capital of Armenia, Yerevan is one of the oldest cities in the world, founded nearly 2800 years ago in the time of ancient Babylon. Sadly, little remains to remind the visitor of the city’s ancient heritage. Most of the old town was demolished in the 1930s, ostensibly to upgrade standards of public health but, according to locals, more crucially with a view to facilitating the policing of the city. Yerevan was rebuilt using the attractive pinkish-brown volcanic tufa stone seen throughout the republic, in so-called ‘Armenian national style’ architecture – solid, sometimes imposing and essentially Soviet in character. Mount Ararat lies across the border in Turkey, although it is claimed as part of the territory of greater Armenia, and is where Noah’s Ark is said to have settled after the Flood. Yerevan’s History and Art Museum includes a section tracing the development of Armenian art from the seventh century to the present day. The history section features models and artefacts informing visitors about life in Armenia and the pre-Armenian state of Urartu. The Yerevan library of ancient manuscripts (Materadaran) houses over 12,000 texts, many beautifully illuminated and some dating as far back as the ninth century. The contents of the library testify to Armenia’s long history of culture and education. The Vernisaj flea market, which takes place at weekends, is very popular with tourists. In the year AD 301, Armenia became the first country to adopt Christianity as the official state religion (with the exception of the now vanished kingdom of King Abgar of Edessa). Many of the most interesting sights in the republic are associated with the heritage of the Armenian apostolic church. ECHMIADZIN: Some 20km (12 miles) west of Yerevan, Echmiadzin was the capital of Armenia from AD 180-340 and remains the site of the country’s most important cathedral, and home of the church’s Supreme Catholicos. The Cathedral of St Gregory the Illuminator is believed to stand on the site of a much older church, itself predated by a pagan shrine. The existing 17th-century cathedral is a fine example of Armenian ecclesiastical architecture, with its squat bell tower and elaborately carved dome. In addition to chalices, vestments and other religious artefacts, the cathedral’s treasury contains a spearhead believed to have been used to pierce the side of the crucified Christ, and a chunk of wood from Mount Ararat, claimed to be part of a plank from Noah’s Ark. There are a number of other churches at Echmiadzin, including the excavated remains of the seventh-century Church of St Gregory at Zvartnots. The building, reputed to have been of extraordinary beauty, was largely destroyed by an earthquake in the tenth century. GEGARD: The Gegard Monastery, located 35km (22 miles) east of Yerevan in a steep, rocky valley, is one of Armenia’s most dramatic sights. The monks, who still inhabit the monastery, occasionally sacrifice sheep on an open-air stone altar. ‘Wishing trees’ by the road approaching the site are decorated with coloured scraps of cloth, tied on by pilgrims and travellers hoping their prayers will be answered. A monastery has occupied this site since the fourth century AD, and the existing churches, all magnificently carved, date from the 13th century. Leading from the vaulted chambers of the main church and adjoining jamatoun, or meeting room, are two chapels hewn into the rock of the mountain itself. One of these contains a holy spring, the other a burial vault decorated with an ornate coat of arms. Higher up the slope, a passage leads into the mountainside to the 13th-century tomb of Prince Papak and his wife Rouzakan, a structure noted for its extraordinary acoustics. GARNI: On the road between Gegard and Yerevan, Garni is the site of a temple to the Roman god Mithras. In the first century AD, Nero sent money and slaves to build the temple, as a tribute to the Armenian King Tiridates for his support in fighting off the Parthians. During the centuries following the conversion of the kings of Armenia to Christianity, the temple served as a royal summer palace. Repeated earthquakes have destroyed most of the original structure, but the temple’s vertiginous position dominating the valley from a plateau 300m (984ft) above the Azat River is breathtakingly beautiful. A ruined ninth-century church stands near the restored temple, and a Roman bathhouse has recently been excavated, revealing a well-preserved mosaic floor. LAKE SEVAN: Situated 70km (43 miles) east of Yerevan, Lake Sevan is the largest lake in the Caucasus, and much vaunted for its pure waters, stunning setting and delicious salmon trout. The principal lakeside resort is Sevan on the northern shore, once popular with Soviet tourists, now optimistically awaiting development to attract wealthy foreigners. Tragically, ill-considered irrigation and hydroelectric projects implemented during the 1970s have triggered an ecological crisis. The water level of the lake has dropped by as much as 16m (41ft). It is now feared that the ecology of Lake Sevan may be irreversibly damaged if radical action is not taken. DILIZHAN: North of Sevan, further into the mountains, is Dilizhan, a resort much favoured during the Soviet period for the medicinal powers attributed to its mineral water. The authorities aspire in the long term to develop ski and spa resorts in this region, but at present, tourist infrastructure remains at a primitive level. A few kilometres east of Dilizhan, in a wooded gorge, is the Agartsin Monastery, believed to have been the major cultural centre in medieval Armenia, and one of the very few perfectly preserved examples of the architecture of its period (tenth-13th centuries). The refectory building is particularly prized. Twenty-five kilometres (16 miles) from Dilizhan, the 12th-century Goshavank Monastery features some of the finest examples of the delicate, lacey style of stone carving developed by medieval craftsmen in the region. ELSEWHERE: In the northwest of the republic, Gumri, Armenia’s second-largest city, and Vanatsor (known during the Soviet period as Leninakan and Kirovaken respectively) suffered badly in the 1988 earthquake and have yet to be rebuilt. Sport & Activities Hiking: Specialist tour operators in Yerevan can organise tailor-made walking tours in Armenia’s spectacular countryside. Hotels will also often supply information. Outdoor pursuits are becoming more popular, and provision for tourists is improving. Birdwatching: Rare species, including eagles, can be seen all over the country. Social Profile Food & Drink: A restaurant and cafe culture is starting to flourish again in Armenia, with street stalls and privately run establishments replacing the colourless state restaurants typical of the Soviet era. New cafes and restaurants are now opening daily. Many of the cafes are in parks, and are very popular in summer with locals and tourists alike. Much Armenian cooking is based on lamb, either grilled and served as shashlik with flat bread, or prepared as soup (the most popular being bozbash, a dish which exists in infinite variations) or stew, often in combination with fruit or nuts. The newly butchered sheep carcasses hanging from trees near most khorovats (barbecued meat) stalls, although perhaps appearing somewhat gruesome to foreign visitors, testify to the freshness of the meat sizzling on the grill. A meal usually starts with a large spread of hors d’oeuvres, which may include peppers and vine leaves stuffed with rice and meat, pickled and fresh vegetables, salty white sheep’s cheese eaten with fresh green herbs and flat bread, and various kinds of cured meat (basturma). Almost magical, health-giving properties are ascribed to dried apricots from the Caucasus. Another desert speciality is made from grape juice, dried into thin sheets of a deep, reddish brown colour, and then rolled up into long cylinders around walnuts or other nuts. The ‘ishkan’ salmon trout from Lake Sevan is proclaimed as a great delicacy, but it is now seldom available. Armenian brandies are excellent. Production of Armenian wines and brandies suffered during Mikhail Gorbachev’s anti-alcohol drive in the 1980s, but locals are still proud to inform visitors that Winston Churchill always insisted on Armenian in preference to French brandy, after first tasting it at the Yalta conference. During the season following the grape harvest, locals sell effervescent, mildly fermented grape juice from roadside stands. Coffee is served Turkish-style – strong and black in tiny cups – although in view of national sensibilities visitors would be ill-advised to refer to this cultural similarity. Nightlife: There are restaurants and nightclubs featuring local music in Yerevan. Several new restaurants and clubs have opened recently. Opera, theatre and ballet performances are of a high standard, and tickets are cheap (about the equivalent of US$5). Shopping: Although Armenia’s economy is still relatively undeveloped, new shops are now opening. The Vernisaj flea market in Yerevan attracts sellers of all kinds of goods and is popular with tourists. Shopping hours: Mon-Fri 0900-1700. Shops stay open longer in the summer. Special Events: The main festivals celebrated in Armenia are New Year’s Eve, Armenian Christmas (6 Jan) and Independence Day (21 Sep). For further details of events in Armenia, contact the Armenian Tourist Office (see Contact Addresses section). Social Conventions: Almost all entertaining takes place in private homes, and guests may find themselves subjected to overwhelming hospitality and generosity, as well as being expected to eat enormously and participate in endless toasts. Visitors invited to an Armenian’s home should arrive bearing some kind of small gift, such as flowers and alcohol (preferably imported) or chocolates. Handshaking is the normal form of greeting. Business cards are invariably exchanged at any kind of official meeting and not infrequently on first meeting people socially as well. Conversation tends to be highly politicised, and guests may be well advised to avoid expressing strong opinions. Women tend to be less retiring than in nearby Muslim countries. Tipping: Expected by waiters and doormen in restaurants – sometimes in advance to ensure service. Taxi fares should always be negotiated before starting a journey, and visitors should be aware that rates proposed initially are likely to be unreasonably high, in the expectation that foreigners will have unlimited cash and little idea of how much they ought to be paying. It is therefore advisable to make enquiries about ‘going rates’ per kilometre of travel before entering into negotiations with taxi drivers. The same applies to market stall holders and so on. Business Profile Economy: Armenia has recovered slowly from the massive economic crisis caused by the 1988 earthquake and the collapse of the Soviet Union but is still seriously affected by the results of the war with Azerbaijan, which include a partial economic blockade and border closures with Azerbaijan and Turkey. Other regional difficulties, such as upheavals in neighbouring Georgia, had a detrimental effect on the country's economy and Armenian foreign trade suffered badly as a result. Many people rely on subsistence agriculture. Mineral deposits including copper, zinc, gold, marble, bauxite and molybdenum have brought some foreign revenue and investment but this sector is relatively undeveloped. The industrial sector comprises textile and chemical industries, aluminium production and some mechanical engineering. The Government introduced a series of major reforms in the mid-1990s including privatisation, a new fiscal structure and the introduction a new currency, the Dram, to replace the Russian Rouble. The country remains dependent on foreign aid and remittances from émigrés, but is steadily improving. The privatisation programme has been extended to include major parts of the national infrastructure such as the electricity grid. The volume of foreign investment is growing (despite concerns about widespread corruption and poor financial controls). The government has also signed important economic co-operation agreements with the Russian Federation and Iran. Business: Business is generally conducted formally, and visitors should dress smartly; appointments are necessary. Office hours: Mon-Fri 0900-1800. Commercial Information: The following organisations can offer advice: Armenian State Foreign Economic and Trade Association, (Armenintorg) 25 Hr Kochar Street, Yerevan 375012 (tel: (1) 224 310; fax: (1) 220 034); or Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 1 Republic Square, Yerevan 375010 (tel: (1) 523 531; fax (1) 151 042); or Ministry of Industry and Trade, 5 Hanrapetoutian Street, Yerevan 375008 (tel: (1) 526 134; fax: (1) 151 675); or Chamber of Commerce and Industry, 39 Hanrapetoutian Street, Yerevan 375033 (tel: (1) 565 438; fax: (1) 565 071; e-mail: chamber@arminco.com) or Armenian Development Agency, 17 Charents Street, Yerevan 375025 (tel: (1) 570 170; fax: (1) 542 272; e-mail: adaoss@netsys.am). Climate Continental, mountain climate (over 90 per cent of the territory of the republic is over 900m/2286ft above sea level). During the summer, days can be hot and dry with temperatures falling sharply at night. Winters are extremely cold with heavy snow. May to June and September to October are good times to visit the country, as the weather is warm but mild. History and Government History: A tragic sense of lost territory and national persecution, pride in a long, unbroken history of religion and learning, and a tradition of emigration and deportation combine – in a similar manner to the Jewish people with whom they are often compared – to give the Armenian people a strong sense of national identity. Before it was incorporated into the Roman Empire in AD 114, the Armenian Empire stretched from the Caspian Sea in the east to the Mediterranean in the west. In AD 301, Armenia became the first country to adopt Christianity as its state religion, and by the fifth century the church had developed an alphabet which is still used today. The incorporation of Armenia into the Turkish Seljuk Empire in the 11th century resulted in the first of many waves of emigration and the beginning of the Armenian diaspora. Turkish rule was not fully consolidated, however, and over the next three centuries, Armenia sought to re-establish its identity. Local potentates forged a variety of alliances according to the strategic imperative of the time: with fellow Christians, namely the crusaders; or with the Mongols to ward off the threat of the Egyptian Mamluks in the 13th century. The Mamluk advance into the region brought an end to this period of comparative independence: subsequent Armenian history is almost exclusively that of foreign domination. The Mamluks were supplanted by the Ottoman Turks, after which Armenia became the subject of a constant struggle between them and the Iranian Safavid dynasty until the 18th century. At the beginning of the 19th century the Russians moved in, and took control of the area that is now the modern state of Armenia. Russian rule was at best heavy handed, particularly under Tsar Nicholas II who closed Armenian schools and libraries and confiscated the assets of the Armenian church. For the many Armenians still living next door in eastern Turkey under Ottoman rule, gradual reforms during the latter part of the 19th century had improved their lot. But this was to change drastically with the outbreak of World War I when the ‘Young Turk’ government, which regarded the Armenians as a dangerous foreign influence, resolved to empty the country of Armenians. This culminated in 1915 in the first genocide of the 20th century, when an estimated one and a quarter million Armenians were massacred by the Turks. Hundreds and thousands more fled or were forced into exile. In the aftermath of World War I, with all of the major regional powers in a weakened condition, Armenia enjoyed a brief spell of independence from 1918 until 1922 in a federation with Georgia and Azerbaijan. Following the Bolshevik victory in the Russian civil war, it was then incorporated into the Transcaucasian Soviet Federated Republic together with Georgia and Azerbaijan, and later as one of three distinct Soviet republics. The Soviet authorities tried to promote Armenia as a homeland and place of return for Armenians exiled all over the world. The seven decades of Soviet rule were, by the historical standards of the region, quiet and peaceful. The shared border with Turkey now assumed a wider significance as a point of direct contact between the Soviet Union and NATO. Internally, Armenian nationalism and the influence of the church were kept firmly in check, particularly during the Stalin era. Stalin’s main legacy to Armenia was an unfortunate one: in carving up the Transcaucasian region to create the three Soviet republics of Armenia, Azerbaijan and Georgia, the mainly Armenian-populated region of Nagorno-Karabakh was awarded to Azerbaijan. As Soviet rule entered its closing phase in the late 1980s, the Armenians were among the first groups in the Soviet Union to test the limits of glasnost, with a series of demonstrations against industrial pollution and repression of the population of Nagorno-Karabakh. Preoccupations suddenly changed in December 1988 when a massive earthquake destroyed much of the capital, Yerevan, and killed several thousand people. Over the next the few years, the reconstruction process and the simmering Karabakh conflict strengthened the hand of the growing dissident movement. This led to the election of the ex-dissident Levon Ter-Petrossian, head of the Pan-Armenian National Movement, first as speaker of the Armenian Supreme Soviet in May 1990, and later as President. Independence was formally declared on 23 September 1991, following the failed coup in Moscow. The Karabakh conflict soon escalated into full-scale war. By the time a ceasefire brokered by Moscow in May 1994 took effect, the Armenians had achieved their main objective of creating a land corridor between the enclave and Armenia proper. Although there are still many obstacles in the way of a comprehensive settlement, Armenia and Azerbaijan have found sufficient issues of common interest to establish a reasonable diplomatic relationship. Despite the war and the often desperate economic situation, Armenian domestic politics were reasonably stable up until the end of the 1990s. The most recent presidential poll, in March 1998, was won by Robert Kocharian while the Miasnutiun coalition of the Republican Party and several small allies won control of the National Assembly. Then, in October 1999, the country was thrown into political crisis by the murder of premier Vazgen Sarkisian and seven other leading politicians in an audacious attack on the parliament building. The identity of the culprits and their purpose have yet to be discovered, but the ultimate political effect of the attack was to undermine completely the relationship between President Kocharian and the Council of Ministers (backed by the national assembly). Armenian politics have been all but paralysed for the last 18 months during the struggle between the two sides. Kocharian has continued in office while the successor government led by Sarkasian’s brother Aram, was dismissed after six months. The premiership is now held by Andranik Markarian, a leading figure in the Republican Party. Government: A new constitution was adopted in 1995 allowing for a directly elected legislature and presidency. The former, the Azgayin Zhogov, has 131 members elected for a four-year term; 75 are chosen from single-seat constituencies; the remaining 56 by proportional representation. The executive president, who selects a Council of Ministers subject to approval by the legislature, also serves a four-year term. Copyright © 2003 Columbus Publishing Ltd.