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History and Government
History: Existing archives trace Bhutanese history back to AD 450 but many of the intervening events remain a mystery. Bhutan has never been conquered or ruled by another foreign power. It first became a coherent political entity around the 17th century under the direction of a succession of Tibetan lamas who established an administrative and political structure over the area, relying principally on the appointment of a set of regional governors. Spiritual and temporal roles were subsequently divided among the leadership (known as dharma raja and deb raja respectively). The UK first came into formal contact with Bhutan in the 18th century, as a result of which the East India Company made a treaty with the territory in 1774. Throughout the 19th century, a series of struggles for influence between the regional governors destabilised the country.
In 1910, the British government took control of Bhutan’s foreign affairs, while agreeing not to interfere with the internal ruling. Meanwhile, the first of the present dynasty of hereditary rulers – who reunited the spiritual and temporal aspects of their mission – worked to consolidate their position. In 1947 and 1949, agreements were reached with India by which the Indian government advised Bhutan on external relations. Trade agreements with India, essential to sustain the Bhutanese economy, have been the subject of regular rounds of negotiation. The most recent pact, concluded in Thimphu in 1990, was accompanied by diplomatic progress on the still-disputed border between the two countries. The presence on Bhutani territory of Assamese guerrillas seeking independence from India for their region of northeast India has also proved an irritant in bilateral relations; there has been an upsurge of Assamese activity since the beginning of 2000. Despite its close relations with Delhi, Bhutan has occasionally switched its support to its other great neighbour, China. This has been particularly noticeable in international forums, such as the Non-Aligned Movement and the UN General Assembly, which Bhutan joined in 1971. Relations with China have been dominated over the years by the issue of Tibet: thousands of refugees entered Bhutan after the Chinese occupation of Tibet in 1959 and the country has since become a centre for Tibetan exile politics.
The refugee issue also dominates relations with Nepal, which hosts an estimated 100,000 refugees housed in camps in the east of the country. Most are ethnic Nepalis who say that they are Bhutanese nationals, although the Bhutanese say that they have relinquished their citizenship. (The Bhutanese population is divided between two main ethnic groups, the Nepalis and the Drupka). The Nepali government wants them to return to Bhutan; the Bhutanese are reluctant to take them. Talks have been underway since November 2001 to resolve the issue. An important reason for the Bhutanese attitude is that the main domestic challenge to the Bhutanese regime has come from the illegal, and Nepali-dominated Bhutan People’s Party (BPP). The BPP has campaigned for greater democracy through demonstrations and occasional acts of violence. The monarch, Jigme Singye Wangchuck (the fourth of the current dynasty), has so far relied on a mixture of repression and controlled development to keep the lid on the unrest, which persisted in most parts of the country throughout the 1990s (without seriously threatening the regime). Anything that may pose a threat to the established social order is excluded from this mountainous, isolated country. Foreign tourists were not admitted until 1974, the country’s only television station only began broadcasting in 1999 and a single Internet provider began operating at the same time. Bhutan was, however, an enthusiastic founder member of the South Asian Association for Regional Co-operation and hosted the inaugural meeting in 1985.
Government: Bhutan has no written constitution and is ruled by a monarchy. Power is shared between the King, the Tshogdu (National Assembly) and the Je Khemp (Monastic Head) of the lamas. Of the 151-member Tsogu, 105 members are elected by adult suffrage. The remaining seats are reserved for officials, members of the King’s advisory council and religious bodies.
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