Egypt Overview ‘An ancient river of life in a sea of sand’ In 430 BC, when Herodotos exclaimed in awe over the magnificent monuments in Egypt, many of them were already 2500 years old. Most, from the pyramids of Giza to the astonishingly beautiful temples of Karnak or Philae, or the painted tombs in the Valley of the Kings, can still be visited today. The sheer age of this great civilisation is mind-blowing. With high levels of heat, confusion, hassle and stomach bugs to contend with, Egypt is not an easy country for travellers, although greatly improved security measures mean anti-Western activities have been largely curtailed. And for those prepared to brave a few discomforts, this extraordinary country assaults the senses. The life-giving Nile pours across the map, feeding an emerald ribbon of irrigated fields adjacent to villages shaded by date palms. Whether on a cruise ship or traditional felucca, life on the water is a constant visual feast, while the few huge, dusty cities – Cairo, Alexandria, Aswan and Luxor – are a babble of exotic sounds and smells. Hurghada and Sharm el-Sheik, on the Red Sea coast, are doors to a magical underwater world of technicolour fish and coral favoured by divers, while other adventurous travellers head inland. Here, you can discover monasteries amid the arid mountains of Sinai or the distant desert oases, homes of the hardy nomads whose camel trains still wander the Saharan sands. Melissa Shales General Information Area: 1,002,000 sq km (386,874 sq miles). Population: 68,359,979 (2000). Population Density: 61.9 per sq km. Capital: Cairo (El Qahira). Population: 6,789,479 (1996). GEOGRAPHY: Egypt is bounded to the north by the Mediterranean, to the south by the Sudan, to the west by Libya, and to the east by the Red Sea and Israel. The River Nile divides the country unevenly in two, while the Suez Canal provides a third division with the Sinai Peninsula. Beyond the highly cultivated Nile Valley and Delta, a lush green tadpole of land that holds more than 90 per cent of the population, the landscape is mainly flat desert, devoid of vegetation apart from the few oases that have persisted in the once fertile depressions of the Western Desert. Narrow strips are inhabited on the Mediterranean coast and on the African Red Sea coast. The coast south of Suez has fine beaches and the coral reefs just offshore attract many divers. The High Dam at Aswan now controls the annual floods that once put much of the Nile Valley under water; it also provides electricity. Government: Republic. Head of State: President Muhammad Hosni Mubarak since 1981. Head of Government: Prime Minister Dr Atif Muhammed Obeid since 1999. Language: Arabic is the official language. English and French are widely spoken. Religion: Islam is the predominant religion. All types of Christianity are also represented, especially the Coptic Christian Church. Time: GMT + 2 (GMT + 3 from May to September). Electricity: Most areas 220 volts AC, 50Hz. Certain rural parts still use 110-380 volts AC. Communications:   Telephone Full IDD is available. Country code: 20. Outgoing international code: 00. Mobile telephone GSM 900. Coverage is limited to Cairo, Alexandria and along the north coast line of the Red Sea from Suez to Sharm el-Sheikh and the major towns along the Nile. Network operators include ECMS, MobilNil (website: www.mobilnil.com) and Missrfone Telecommunications (website: www.clickgsm.com). Fax Several of the major hotels in Cairo have introduced fax facilities; check with the hotel concerned before travelling. Telegram International telegram services are available from the Central Post Offices in Cairo, Alexandria, Luxor and Aswan and main hotels. Internet There are Internet cafes in the main cities, including Cairo, Alexandria, Dahab and Luxor. Tourists can also access the Internet in hotels. The main ISPs include Internet Egypt (website: www.internetegypt.com), EUN, Rite and Ritesec. Post The postal system is efficient for international mail. Airmail to western Europe takes about five days. There are Poste Restante facilities at the Central Post Office; a small fee is charged when mail is collected. All post offices are open daily 0900-1400 except Friday, and the Central Post Office in Cairo is open 24 hours. Press The most influential Egyptian daily is Al-Ahram; others include Al-Akhbar and several weekly and periodical publications. Two daily newspapers – Le Journal d’Alexandrie and Le Progrès Egyptien – are published in French. The English-language daily newspaper is the Egyptian Gazette. The Middle East Observer is the main weekly English-language business paper. BBC World Service and Voice of America frequencies: From time to time these change. BBC (website: www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice): MHz 15.49 12.10 9.410 6.195 Voice of America (website: www.voa.gov): MHz 15.21 11.82 9.760 1.197 Passport/Visa   Passport Required? Visa Required? Return Ticket Required? British Yes Yes/1 No Australian Yes Yes/1 No Canadian Yes Yes/1 No USA Yes Yes/1 No OtherEU Yes Yes No Japanese Yes Yes No PASSPORTS: Passport valid for at least three months beyond the period of intended stay required by all, however they must be valid for at least six months when actually applying for a visa. VISAS: Required by all except the following: (a) nationals of Kuwait for stays of up to six months; (b) nationals of Bahrain, Djibouti, Guinea, Libya, Oman, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, Yemen and holders of Hong Kong (SAR) or Macau (SAR) passports for stays of up to three months; (c) nationals of Jordan (if holding a five-year passport) and Malta passports for stays of up to one month; (d) nationals of Malaysia for a tourist stay of a maximum of 15 days; (e) those continuing their journey to a third country within 24 hours, provided holding confirmed tickets. Types of visa and cost: Tourist and Business (single- and multiple-entry). Cost varies according to nationality. Nationals of Australia, New Zealand, and UK: Tourist: £15 (single-entry); £18 (multiple-entry). Business: £53 (single-entry); £91 (multiple-entry). Nationals of Germany pay a standard rate of £13 for visas of any type. Nationals of Cyprus, Denmark, Finland, Norway, Russian Federation, Sweden, USA and Yugoslavia (Serbia and Montenegro) pay a standard rate of £12 for visas of any type. Payment of fees is in cash (personal applications) or by postal order only; cheques will not be accepted. Processing fees for other nationals vary considerably; check with the appropriate Consulate (or Consular section of Embassy) for costs of visas. Visa fees are per passport, not per person. Note: 1. Nationals of Australia, Canada, New Zealand, the UK and the USA can usually obtain visas on arrival at Cairo International Airport (cost: US$15) provided they hold passports valid for a minumum of six months. However, they should check with their airline that they will be permitted to board the aircraft without a visa. It is always advisable to obtain visas in advance if possible. Validity: Varies, but are usually valid for six months from the date of issue for stays of up to three months. Visas cannot be post-dated. Application to: Consulate (or Consular section at Embassy); see Contact Addresses section. Application requirements: (a) Passport valid for at least six months with at least one blank page. (b) Application form, completed and signed. (c) One recent passport-size photo. (d) Postal applicants must enclose a registered- or recorded-delivery, self-addressed envelope and pay by postal order only. (e) Fee, payable by cash or postal order. (f) Business letter for Business visa. Working days required: Same day for personal applications; five days or more from day of receipt for postal applications. Note: Visitors from all countries except Canada, the EU and the USA must register with the police within a week of arrival in Egypt, although this service is usually undertaken by the hotel. Money Currency: Egyptian Pound (E£) = 100 piastres. Notes are in denominations of E£100, 50, 20, 10, 5 and 1. Coins are in denominations of 50, 25, 20, 10 and 5 piastres. Currency exchange: Available at banks and official bureaux de change. There are five national banks and 78 branches of foreign banks. Credit & debit cards: MasterCard, American Express, Diners Club and Visa are accepted. Check with your credit or debit card company for details of merchant acceptability and other services which may be available. Travellers cheques: To avoid additional exchange rate charges, travellers are advised to take travellers cheques in US Dollars or Pounds Sterling. Currency restrictions: The import and export of local currency is restricted to E£1000. The import and export of foreign currency is unlimited. Exchange rate indicators The following figures are included as a guide to the movements of the Egyptian Pound against Sterling and the US Dollar: Date May ’02 Aug ’02 Nov ’02 Feb ’03 £1.00= 6.75 7.06 7.33 8.78 $1.00= 4.63 4.65 4.63 5.52 Banking hours: Sun-Thurs 0830-1400. Duty Free The following goods may be imported into Egypt without incurring customs duty: 200 cigarettes or 25 cigars or 200g of tobacco; 1l of alcoholic beverages; a reasonable amount of perfume and 1l of eau de cologne; goods up to E£20. Note: All cash, travellers cheques, credit cards and gold over E£500 must be declared on arrival. Persons travelling with valuable electronic equipment such as cameras, video cameras or computers may be required to list these in their passports to ensure that they will be exported on departure. Prohibited items: Narcotics, firearms and cotton; for a full list, contact the Egyptian Commercial Office, 23 South Street, London, W1Y 6DN (tel: (020) 7499 3002; fax: (020) 7493 8110). Public Holidays Oct 6 2002 Armed Forces Day. Oct 24 Suez Victory Day. Dec 5-6 Bairam Feast (End of Ramadan). Dec 23 Victory Day. Jan 7 2003* Coptic Christmas Day. Feb 11-12 Grand Feast. Mar 5 Islamic New Year. Apr 25 Sinai Liberation Day. Apr 27-28 Sham el-Nassim (Coptic Easter). May 1 Labour Day. Jun 18 Liberation Day. Jul 23 Revolution Day. Aug Wafa’a el Nil (Flooding of the Nile). Sep 11* Coptic New Year. Oct 6 Armed Forces Day. Oct 24 Suez Victory Day. Nov 25-26 Bairam Feast (End of Ramadan). Dec 23 Victory Day. Jan 7 2004* Coptic Christmas Day. Feb 1-2 Grand Feast. Feb 22 Islamic New Year. Apr 25 Sinai Liberation Day. Apr 11-12 Sham el-Nassim (Coptic Easter). May 1 Labour Day. Jun 18 Liberation Day. Jul 23 Revolution Day. Aug Wafa’a el Nil (Flooding of the Nile). Sep 11* Coptic New Year. Oct 6 Armed Forces Day. Oct 24 Suez Victory Day. Nov 13-14 Bairam Feast (End of Ramadan). Dec 23 Victory Day. Note: Muslim festivals are timed according to local sightings of various phases of the moon and the dates given above are approximations. During the lunar month of Ramadan that precedes the Bairam Feast, Muslims fast during the day and feast at night and normal business patterns may be interrupted. Some restaurants are closed during the day but most tourist attractions and hotels are not affected. Some disruption may continue into the three-day Grand Feast itself. For more information, see the World of Islam appendix. *These holidays are not official, although Coptic Christians may observe them. Health   Special Precautions Certificate Required Yellow Fever No 1 Cholera Yes 2 Typhoid and Polio 3 N/A Malaria 4 N/A 1: A yellow fever vaccination certificate is required from travellers over one year of age coming from infected areas (see below). Those arriving in transit from such areas without a certificate will be detained at the airport until their onward flight departs. The following countries and areas are regarded by the Egyptian health authorities as being infected with yellow fever: all countries in mainland Africa south of the Sahara with the exception of Lesotho, Mozambique, Mauritania, Namibia, South Africa, Swaziland and Zimbabwe (and including Mali, Niger and Chad); Sudan south of 15°N (location certificate issued by a Sudanese official is required in order to be exempt from vaccination certificate); São Tomé e Principe. Also Belize, Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, French Guiana, Guyana, Panama, Peru, Surinam, Trinidad & Tobago and Venezuela. 2: Following WHO guidelines issued in 1973, a cholera vaccination certificate is no longer a condition of entry to Egypt. However, sporadic cases of cholera have been reported and precautions could be considered. Up-to-date advice should be sought before deciding whether these precautions should include vaccination as medical opinion is divided over its effectiveness. See the Health appendix for further information. 3: Vaccination against typhoid is advised. 4: Limited malaria risk, in the malignant falciparum and benign vivax forms, exists from June to October in the El Faiyoum area. There is no risk in Cairo or Alexandria at any time. Food & drink: Mains water is normally chlorinated, and whilst relatively safe may cause mild abdominal upsets. Bottled water is available and is advised for the first few weeks of the stay. Milk is unpasteurised and should be boiled. Powdered or tinned milk is available and is advised, but make sure that it is reconstituted with pure water. Avoid dairy products which are likely to have been made from unboiled milk. Only eat well-cooked meat and fish, preferably served hot. Pork, salad and mayonnaise may carry increased risk. Vegetables should be cooked and fruit peeled. Drinking water outside main cities and towns carries a greater risk and should always be sterilised. Other risks: Precautions against hepatitis A and E and diphtheria should be considered. Immunisation against hepatitis B is sometimes advised. Dengue fever occurs in epidemics. Bilharzia (schistosomiasis) is present in the Nile Delta and the Nile Valley. Avoid swimming and paddling in fresh water. Swimming pools which are well-chlorinated and maintained are safe. Filariasis may occur in the Nile Delta. There may be a danger of snakes and scorpions in certain areas. Rabies is present. For those at high risk, vaccination before arrival should be considered. If you are bitten, seek medical advice without delay. For more information consult the Health appendix. Health care: Public hospitals and chemists are open to tourists. Health insurance is strongly advised. Travel - International AIR: The national airline is Egypt Air (MS) (website: www.egyptair.com.eg). All the main carriers service Egypt, including Cathay Pacific, KLM, Lufthansa, JAL, Olympic Airways and Swiss. Charter services fly direct from London Gatwick to Egypt. British Mediterranean (a franchise partner of British Airways) operates daily services from London to Alexandria. Approximate flight times: From Cairo to London is 4 hours 45 minutes (from Luxor to London is 5 hours 35 minutes), from Cairo to Los Angeles is 16 hours 40 minutes, to New York is 14 hours 25 minutes, to Singapore is 12 hours 35 minutes, and to Sydney is 20 hours. International airports: Cairo International (CAI), 22km (14 miles) northeast of the city at Heliopolis (travel time – 60 minutes). There are bus services every 30 minutes, and taxis are available. Special limousines are offered by local and international operators. Hotel cars may also be available. Airport facilities include incoming and outgoing 24-hour duty-free shops selling a wide range of goods, several 24-hour car hire firms, post office, 24-hour bank/bureau de change, 24-hour restaurants and bar, hotel reservation service, souvenir shops, bookshop and travel insurance services. Borg El Arab (HBE), has replaced El Nouzha airport as the main international airport for Alexandria. It lies 60 km (37 miles) southwest of Alexandria. Airport facilities include a duty-free shop, bank and exchange services, VIP lounge, post office and restaurant. Luxor Airport (LXR) is 5.5km (3.5 miles) from Luxor. There is a regular bus service to the city centre (travel time – 15 minutes). Special limousine and local taxi services are available. Airport facilities include car hire, bank and exchange services, and a bar and restaurant. Improvement works have taken place and are expected to continue to meet the increasing tourist flow. Departure tax: None. SEA: The main coastal ports are Alexandria, Nuweiba, Port Said and Suez. The Saudi Sea Transport Company runs a regular car ferry service between Suez and Jeddah. A ferry service usually travels twice a week up the Nile between Wadi Halfa (Sudan) and Egypt High Dam, but is occasionally suspended. For further information, contact the Nile Valley Association (tel: (2) 578 9256). There is also a ferry service that operates twice daily between South Sinai and Aqaba (Jordan). There are special rates for children under 12 and under three years of age. For more information, contact the Cairo Navigation Agency (tel: (2) 574 5755 or 575 5568). The Black Sea Shipping Company sails from Odessa. Other main passenger lines are Egyptian Navigation Company, Gulf Agency Company, Orient Shipping Ltd and Arab Express Shipping. Many cruise ships stop over in Egypt as part of their African itinerary. Main cruise line operators include Orient Lines, Cunard Line, Princess Cruises, Royal Caribbean and Silversea Cruises. RAIL: There are no international rail links to any of Egypt’s northwestern neighbours. The railheads at Aswan and Wadi Halfa, Sudan are connected by a ferry across Lake Nasser. ROAD: The road border between Libya and Egypt is open. There are two border crossings between Israel and Egypt: one runs from Cairo via El Arish to Rafiah on the north Sinai coast; and the other from Cairo via Suez and Taba to Eilat. Daily coaches leave early in the morning from Tel Aviv and Jerusalem in Israel for travel via El Arish/Rafiah to Cairo and vice versa. There are no direct buses from Eilat to Cairo; it is necessary to change in Taba. The crossing from Taba to Eilat is now open 24 hours a day. Passengers in taxis and rented cars are not permitted to cross the borders between Israel and Egypt. Privately owned vehicles may be taken across other borders, provided the appropriate documentation is obtained. All private vehicles entering Egypt must have a three month triptyche or Carnet de passage en douane from an automobile club in the country of registration. The driver must hold an international drivers’ licence. Visas should normally be obtained in advance; however, travellers entering Egypt via Taba may be able to obtain visas at the border. Contact the Tourist Office for further details of entry restrictions (see Contact Addresses section). Travel - Internal AIR: Egypt Air operates daily flights between Cairo, Alexandria, Luxor, Aswan, Abu Simbel, and Hurghada. For information on schedules, contact local offices or their website (www.egyptair.com.eg). Air Sinai operates services from Cairo to El Arish, St Catherine, Hurghada, Taba, Eilat, Ras El Nakab, Luxor and Sharm el-Sheikh. SEA/RIVER: There are slow and fast ferry services linking Hurghada with Sharm el-Sheikh in Sinai. Slow ferries operate daily on Mon, Wed, Fri (travel time – 5-6 hours). Fast ferries operate daily on Mon, Tues and Sat (travel time – 1 hour 30 minutes). The traditional Nile sailing boats, feluccas, can be hired by the hour for relaxed sailing on the Nile. Regular Nile cruises operate between Luxor and Aswan, and sometimes between Cairo and Aswan usually for the following periods: four nights, five days (standard tour); six nights, seven days (extended tour), and 14 nights, 15 days (full Nile cruise). There are over 160 individually-owned boats of all categories operating on the Nile. RAIL: A comprehensive rail network offering a high standard of service is operated along an east–west axis from Sallom on the Libyan border to Alexandria and Cairo, and along the Nile to Luxor and Aswan. There are also links to Port Said and Suez. There are frequent trains from Cairo to Alexandria, and also several luxury air-conditioned day and night trains with sleeping and restaurant cars from Cairo to Luxor and Aswan for the Nile Valley tourist trade. For the overnight train, bookings should be made one week in advance through a travel agent or through Abela Egypt, Ramses Station, Ramses Square, Cairo (tel: (2) 574 9274 or 574 9474; fax: (2) 574 9074; e-mail: reservation@sleepingtrains.com; website: www.sleepingtrains.com). On Egyptian state railways, children under four years travel free. Children aged four to nine years pay half fare. Holders of Youth Hostel cards can get reductions. For details of other possible reductions, contact the Tourist Office. ROAD: Traffic drives on the right. Besides the Nile Valley and Delta, which hold an extensive road network, there are paved roads along the Mediterranean and African Red Sea coasts. The road looping through the Western Desert oases from Asyut to Giza is now fully paved. The speed limit is usually 90kph (56mph) on motorways and 100kph (62mph) on the desert motorway from Cairo to Alexandria (there are substantial fines for speeding). Private motoring in the desert regions is not recommended without suitable vehicles and a guide. For more details, contact the Egyptian Automobile Club in Cairo. Bus: The national bus system serves the Nile Valley and the coastal road. Main routes are from Cairo to St Catherine, Sharm el-Sheikh, Dahab, Ras Sudr, El-Tour, Taba and Rafah; from Suez to El-Tour and Sharm el-Sheikh; and from Sharm el-Sheikh to Taba, Neweiba, El-Tour, Dahab and St Catherine. Coach services operate between Cairo and Agami, Marakia-Mrabila, Marina-Aidda Sidy Abd El Rahman, Matrouh, Ma’amoura Beach and Hurghada. Taxi: These are available in all the larger cities and are metered (see also Urban below). Long-distance group taxis for all destinations are cheap. Fares should be agreed in advance. Car hire: This is available through Avis, Europcar, Hertz, Budget, Thrifty and local companies. Documentation: Visitor’s own insurance and an International Driving Permit are required to drive any motor vehicle. Carnet de Passage or a suitable deposit is necessary for the temporary import of visitor’s own vehicle. All vehicles (including motorcycles) are required by law to carry a fire extinguisher and a red hazard triangle. URBAN: The government-owned Cairo Transport Authority runs buses and tram services in Cairo and also operates cross-Nile ferries. There is a central area flat fare. In addition, there are other buses and fixed-route shared taxi and minibus services run by private operators. Vehicles normally wait at city terminals to obtain a full load, but there are frequent departures. Fares are three to four times higher than on the buses. Cairo’s suburban railways have been upgraded to provide a rapid transit network, including Africa’s first underground railway. Alexandria also has buses and tramways, with first- and second-class accommodation and distance-regulated fares. TRAVEL TIMES: The following chart gives approximate travel times (in hours and minutes) from Cairo to other major cities/towns in Egypt. Air Road Rail Alexandria 0.30 3.00 2.30 Luxor 1.00 12.00 17.00 Aswan 2.00 16.00 19.00a *Port Said 0.45 3.00 3.00 St Catherine 0.30 4.00 - Hurghada 1.00 8.00 - Sharm el-Sh’k 1.30 7.00 - Marsa Matr’h 1.30 5.00 9.00 Arish 1.00 5.00 9.00 Ismailia - 2.00 2.30 Suez - 4.00 4.00 New Valley 2.00 12.00 - NOTE: *Overnight journey.Accommodation Tourism is one of Egypt’s main industries and accommodation is available around all the major attractions and the larger cities. Egypt has all types of accommodation on offer, from deluxe hotels to youth hostels, at prices to suit all pockets. HOTELS: The main cities have moderately priced quality hotels, which must be booked well in advance, especially during the winter months. Smaller hotels are very good value. Hotel bills are subject to a tax and service charge of 12 per cent. For further information and a copy of the ‘Egyptian Hotel Guide’ contact the Egyptian Hotel Association, 8 El Sad El Ali Street, Dokki, Giza, Cairo (tel: (2) 748 5083 or 748 8468; fax: (2) 760 8956 or 761 1333; e-mail: eha@link.net). CAMPING/CARAVANNING: Travel through the desert wilderness is available through local tour operators. It should be borne in mind that desert travel is extremely hazardous without an experienced guide, ample supplies of water and a vehicle in good mechanical condition. There are only a few official campsites in the country. Tourists are advised to contact the local tourist offices on arrival for further details. The tourist office in Cairo is at 5 Adly Street, Cairo (tel: (2) 391 3454). There is also an office at Cairo International Airport (tel: (2) 415 7475). YOUTH HOSTELS: There are 15 youth hostels altogether, which are located mainly in large towns and popular tourist regions. Further information can be obtained from the Egyptian Youth Hostels Associaton, 1 El-Ibrahamy Street, Garden City, Cairo (tel: (2) 794 0527; fax: (2) 795 0329; e-mail: eyhaho@usa.net). Introduction Travellers have marvelled at Egypt’s archaeological wonders for centuries, ever since the Ancient Greeks visited the pyramids. Today, the ancient wonders attract millions of tourists each year to the pyramids, temples, mosques and great monuments of the Nile Valley, as well as the stunning diving resorts of the Red Sea. Cairo Known as the greatest city in the Islamic world, Cairo’s ancient monuments and medieval customs thrive in a cosmopolitan, modern city. A blend of Arab, African and European influences, Africa’s largest city has a population of at least 18 million. Situated on the Nile, the city is polluted and overcrowded, and getting around poses many challenges although it has greatly improved with the new underground Metro system. In Islamic (or Medieval) Cairo, narrow congested streets are filled with donkey carts, spice traders and imposing mosques. A central landmark is Midan Hussain, a large open square with tea houses around the perimeter, and dominated by the sacred Mosque of Sayyidna Al-Hussain. Adjacent is the famous Khan-el Khalili, one of the world’s largest bazaars, pulsing with commerce and crammed with spices, coppersmiths, perfume and trinkets. Bargaining has been a way of life in these alleyways since the late 14th century and it is easy to get taken in by silver-tongued salesmen. Here, Fishawi’s tea house has been in business for over 200 years, and is still a great people-watching venue. Nearby is Al-Azhar Mosque, containing the oldest university in the world (AD 970). The pre-Ottoman Madrassa and Mausoleum of Al-Ghouri, has twice weekly Sufi dancing, and opposite is Wakala of Al-Ghouri, an attractively preserved cultural centre. Exhibits in the Museum of Islamic Art bring Islamic Cairo to life, with arts, ceramics, mosaics and calligraphy. The Citadel was home to Egypt’s rulers for 700 years; an imposing medieval fortress offering sweeping views of the city. Within it is the Midan Salah al-Din with the unmissable Sultan Hassan and Rifai Mosques. The Mohammad Ali Mosque has classic Ottoman minarets and interior. Within the Citadel, other attractions include the Military National Museum, Al-Gawhara Palace and Museum and the National Police Museum. City of the Dead (Northern Cemetery) is a Mamluk necropolis with hundreds of thousands of tombs dating from the 12th century. Many thousands more live here in something resembling a shanty town amongst the ornate mausoleums. Sharia Talat Harb street and Midan Tahrir (Liberation Square) are typical of the more modern, commercial centre of Cairo – filled with concrete and cars, and containing countless hotels, restaurants, office blocks and museums. Here is one of the country’s greatest attractions; the Museum of Egyptian Antiquities housing over 130,000 exhibits including Pharaonic and Byzantine art and sculpture, the Mummy Room and the celebrated Tutankhamun exhibition. Behind the museum, bridges cross the Nile, and riverside walks along the corniche bring some relief from traffic. Here, river taxis travel to local docks, and feluccas (sail boats) are available for private trips. The south is home to the Coptic Orthodox Christians, forming ten per cent of the population. Originally a Roman fortress town called Babylon, it was greatly significant to early Christians. Here, the Coptic Museum has exhibits from AD 300 to AD 1000, in the world’s greatest collection of Coptic art. The Hanging Church, Monastery of St George and the Churches of St Sergius and St Barbara are all in the same area. The Ben Ezra Synagogue is one of the oldest in Egypt, and represents the remains of the Jewish community. The small island of Gezira is a modern upmarket area with the Opera House (a US$30 million arts complex) containing the Museum of Modern Art, and the Cairo Tower with great city views. The adjacent neighbourhood of Zamalek contains elegant town houses and embassies. On the southwest outskirts of the city is Giza, with Cairo Zoo and University – but more famous for the Great Pyramids, Egypt’s most visited monuments. Of the three main pyramids (Cheops, Chephren and Mycerinus), the largest is 137m (449ft) high and contains some three million blocks of stone. Exploring the interiors is possible via labyrinthine tunnels and staircases. Adjacent is the bewitching Sphinx, as named by the ancient Greeks, with the head of a woman and body of a lion. Erosion was partly rectified by restoration, which finished in 1998. Early morning and late afternoon is a little less crowded, and every evening there are son et lumière shows. Camels, horses and donkeys can be hired to explore the site. Elsewhere: There are more ancient tombs and pyramids outside the city, more difficult to get to but much less crowded. There are remains of the Old Kingdom’s capital Memphis; the necropolis at Saqqara, with the Step Pyramid older than those at Giza, with well preserved wall reliefs and royal tombs. Dahshur has only been open to foreigners since 1996, and is famous for its Bent Pyramid, and a huge field of royal tombs. In contrast to ancient sights, the Camel Market (Souq al-Gamaal), is held every morning at Birqash, around 35km (21 miles) from the city, located on the edge of the Western Desert. Hundreds of camels are sold daily, most having being brought from Sudan. Oases: Egypt’s six oases can provide relief from cities. All have accommodation, and can be accessed by public transport. The desert forms 94 per cent of the country’s area, yet only one per cent of the population. The largest and most developed is Kharga, with a Berber community, temples and museums. Dhakla Oasis has hot springs, and camel rides over the sand dunes. The nearby village of Bashandi sells handicrafts made by local girls. The smallest is Farafra, an ancient fort town; Bahariyya is made up of several small villages, famed for its olives and dates. Al-Faiyum Oasis is 100km (60 miles) southwest of Cairo, and the area contains small pyramids, the old city of Karanis, and temples. Siwa is the furthest west and remote, but the most picturesque and idyllic. The community is traditional and Berber-speaking. The Nile Many tour operators offer Nile cruises, usually between Luxor and Aswan, and generally lasting around five days. It is also possible to get a cruise to Minia (a charming town with Roman, Greek and Pharaonic ruins, including the Beni Hassan archaeological area) and/or through to Cairo. Felucca trips offer the same route – with more basic facilities. For further information, see also the Sport & Activities section. LUXOR: Once the ancient village of Thebes and powerhouse of upper Egypt, Luxor has grown into a large town, awash with hotels, restaurants and souvenir shops, with most of its economy coming from tourism. A highlight is the Karnak Temple, covering an immense 100 acres (40.5 hectares). Of the three temple enclosures, the grandest is the Precinct of Amun, the main place of worship. The Great Hypostyle Hall is 6000 sq m (66,667 sq ft) and filled with immense stone pillars. The whole site has colossal statues, reliefs, obelisks and halls and, of course, the Avenue of the Sphinxes. There are nightly son et lumière shows. Along the riverbank, Luxor Temple is guarded by a huge statue of Ramses II, and although a fraction of the area of Karnak, it also contains countless columns, statues and sphinxes. A pleasant walk north along the corniche brings you to the Luxor Museum where a small interesting collection of relics from the Theban Temples and Necropolis can be viewed. The recently opened Mummification Museum has exhibits of human, reptile and bird mummies, as well as explanations of how they are made. On the West Bank of the Nile is the vast Theban Necropolis, containing some of the world’s finest tombs: the Valley of the Kings; Valley of the Queens; and Tombs of the Nobles. Highlights include the Tomb of Tutankhamun; newly opened Ramses II; and Tomb of Nefertari, reputed to be the country’s finest, which is newly restored and allows only 150 visitors a day for ten minutes. Nearby is Deir el-Bahri (Northern Monastery), a picturesque temple set amidst the amphitheatre of the Theban Hills. Along the Nile, felucca owners tout for custom, and it is possible to hire one for a brief sunset cruise, to Banana Island, or even to organise a trip upriver to Aswan. Hot-air balloon trips are also available, offering the best views of Luxor. Around Luxor Temple, shopping is dominated by tourist bazaars with enthusiastic salesmen. The more traditional souk, with household goods, spices and clothes, is on Sharia el-Birka. Cafes and stalls sell hot food, and there are rooftop terraces overlooking the river. A livestock market is held every Tuesday morning at El-Hebel, a village 4km (2.4 miles) from Luxor. ASWAN: A beautiful winter resort, relaxing Aswan is the southernmost city in the country; the gateway to Africa, and steeped in Nubian culture. Although the sights are not the country’s finest, the town’s riverside location is picturesque and peaceful. It has a busy tourism scene although it is less aggressive than Luxor. The corniche provides attractive riverside walks, and a stop-off for many cruise ships. In the evenings, floating restaurants provide a lively gathering place, and the world-famous folkloric dance troupe performs nightly during winter months at the Cultural Centre. Southernmost is the Old Cataract Hotel (famous as the location of the film ‘Death on the Nile’). Sharia el-Souq is the atmospheric market stretching for streets, with spices, food and clothes as well as predictable tourist souvenirs. Elephantine Island is easily accessible by river taxi. Formerly Egypt’s frontier town, recent excavations of this ancient site have revealed temples and a fortress. Aswan Museum contains exhibits found in Nubia and Aswan. The Nilometre on the south of the island, dating back to Pharaonic times, was used to measure the height of the Nile. Further south is the tiny Island of Plants, presented to Lord Horatio Kitchener in the 1890s in recognition of his military services. Importing exotic flowers and plants from India and Malaysia, he created a beautiful botanical garden, open daily to the public, attracting a wide variety of birds. On the West Bank of the Nile lies the Monastery of St Simeon, which resembles a fortress. Nearby is the domed granite and sandstone Mausoleum of Aga Khan. Beyond Aswan: Outside the city are the Aswan Dam, built by the British at the beginning of the century; and the Temple of Philae, on the Island of Philae. The Temple is one of Egypt’s most legendary attractions, and after being under threat from flooding from the High Dam, UNESCO moved it stone by stone to a higher point on the island. Further afield is Abu Simbel, the magnificent Sun Temple of Ramses II, also rescued from flooding by UNESCO. Ramses had four gigantic statues of himself built in order to intimidate travellers entering Egypt from Africa, especially the Nubians. The road was closed to tourists in 1997 for security reasons, but reopened in 2000 – although not all public vehicles will take tourists. Kom Ombo, 30km (18 miles) north of Aswan, is a largely Nubian settlement, known for its Temple of Haroeris and Sobek. Nearby is the Darow Camel Market, held every Tuesday morning and mainly frequented by tribesmen from the northern Sudanese deserts. Edfu is famed for the largest and best preserved Pharaoronic Temple in Egypt, the Temple of Horus. It is a favoured starting/stopping point for felucca trips to Luxor. Alexandria The Northern Coast is dominated by Alexandria, conquered and designed by Alexander the Great. More Mediterranean than Arabic, it was always considered affluent and liberal, and still attracts wealthy Cairenes as a summer retreat. Egypt’s second city is less chaotic than Cairo, and famed for its numerous Hellenistic and Roman relics from the age when it was the cultural capital of Europe. The newly constructed Bibliotheka Alexandria, costing over US$300m, is the greatest library in the ancient world and a major research centre for scholars. Relics from the third century BC are exhibited in the Graeco-Roman Museum, and there is a recently excavated Roman Amphitheatre. Fort Qait Bey is a 15th-century fort built on the foundations of the Pharos Lighthouse, one of the Seven Wonders of the World. The modern Mosque of Abu al-Abbas Mursi dominates the main square on Sharia Tatwig, and other places of interest include the Museum of Fine Arts, and Montazah Palace with attractive gardens, often the summer venue of theatre performances. Swimming and diving are popular, although beaches tend to be overcrowded in summer. Ma’amoura is a more liberal and Westernised beach, and further out of the city Agami and Hannoville are cleaner and less crowded. Diving is possible on Montazah beach. Beyond Alexandria: The ancient city of Rosetta, 65km (39 miles) away from Alexandria, is famed for being the origin of the Rosetta Stone (now housed in the British Museum) and has attractive Ottoman, ‘Delta Style’ architecture. El Alamein is a small coastal village 100km (60 miles) west of Alexandria and an easy day trip. Famous as the scene of a decisive Allied victory, which determined the fate of Egypt and Britain’s Empire, there is a War Museum, Cemetery and Memorial to the soldiers who died in battle. Further west is the coastal resort of Mersa Matrouh, which has a good beach, although it can be overcrowded in summer. Sinai & The Red Sea Coast A great example of modern engineering, the Suez Canal links the Red Sea with the Mediterranean. Completed in 1869, it has repeatedly been the cause of dispute, most recently when blocked during the 1967 war with Israel. Port Said is the main city. Anyone travelling to Sinai by road would cross the Suez on a small shuttle boat, or under the tunnel. The Red Sea Coast sits strategically between Africa and Asia, rich in mineral wealth and revered as the place of miracles and prophets in Judaism, Islam and Christianity. God is said to have appeared to Moses here, and thought to have delivered the Israelites from the Egyptian army into the Red Sea. These days, the region is revered for its spectacular diving resorts, beaches, stunning coastline and vast deserts. This area has some of the best diving and snorkelling in the world, and has a more liberal atmosphere than the rest of Egypt. The coastline attracts tourists ranging from top-class package deals, to backpackers in campsites: Sharm el-Sheikh is a large resort, and is best for diving. Na’ama Bay is much better developed and upmarket, with private beaches. A few kilometres north is Shark Bay, a quieter resort camp. The beaches at Dahab are spectacularly framed by jagged mountains. Holiday villages within a Bedouin settlement are close by. Nuweiba is a port city, with a plethora of resorts, and is famous for Olin the dolphin, with which people can pay to swim. Local Bedouins offer jeep safaris into the interior. Between here and Taba, there are many small, quiet resorts that threaten to be overshadowed by a huge new tourist development, Taba Heights. On the west of the Red Sea Coast, the biggest diving resort is Hurghada, once a fishing village and now a major commercial tourist centre. Ras Muhammed is the southernmost point on the peninsula, fringed with lagoons and reefs, and is now a National Park. Little is accessible in Sinai’s interior, a barren area with rocks and sands, and the best way to explore this is by treks or safari by camel or jeep. One of the highlights is St Catherine’s Monastery, now home to Greek Orthodox monks. St Catherine was the legendary martyr of Alexandria, who was tortured and beheaded for her Christianity. It has been a place of pilgrimage since the fourth century. Within the monastery is the ‘burning bush’ from which God is said to have appeared to speak to Moses. Mount Sinai, revered as the site of God’s revelation of the Ten Commandments, is a craggy and sheer-faced mount of grey and red, dramatic and steep. Care should be taken when ascending. Other places to visit in this region include Oyun Musa (‘Springs of Moses’), Qalat al-Gindi, an 800-year-old fortress, and Hammam Fara’un’s hot springs and isolated beach. Sport & Activities Diving: The Red Sea coast and the Gulf of Aqaba are deservedly popular among divers, owing to their rich marine life and shipwrecks. A large variety of coral, tiny florescent fish, giant turtles, Napoleon wrasse and nurse sharks are just some of the species inhabiting the area. The main dive centres are on the Sinai Peninsular at Sharm el-Sheikh and Ras Muhammad, a national park since 1983. Equipment may be hired and training is available for all levels of ability. Near Sharm el-Sheikh, there is a famous World War II wreck, the SS Thistlegorm and the nearby Straits of Tirian host spectacular offshore reefs, as well as two more wrecks. Live-aboard packages are available from some operators. Conditions vary according to the time of year: in February and March, the extra plankton in the water attracts manta rays and in November and December, the visibility is particularly good. A twice weekly tour for E£5 can be taken to four islands in the Red Sea, namely Abou Kizan, The Emerald, The Two Brothers and The Rocky Island. For further information, see the Resorts & Excursions section or contact the Egyptian State Tourist Office (see Contact Addresses section). Note: The Red Sea coral reefs are all protected by law and persons removing ‘souvenirs’ will incur heavy fines. Nile cruises: There are numerous cruise steamers on the Nile, the majority of which provide a very high standard of service. Vessels usually carry between 50 and 100 passengers, with the facilities varying according to the size of the individual vessel. Contacting a specialist operator is recommended for choosing a Nile cruise. Normally visitors can only book the complete package through a tour operator. Traditional feluccas may also be chartered. For further information, see Nile Cruises in the Resorts & Excursions section or contact the Egyptian State Tourist Office (see Contact Addresses section). Other: Tennis, croquet and horseriding clubs are found in both Alexandria and Cairo. For details, ask at the hotel. There is a public golf club at the foot of the Giza pyramids and there is a Gary Player course at Soma Bay on the Red Sea. Most courses either adjoin or are part of hotels, for instance the Mena House which is 15 minutes from Cairo. Other courses include the Alexandria Sporting Club (30 minutes from Alexandria); Jolie Ville (five minutes from Sharm el-Sheikh); Royal Valley Golf Course (25 minutes from Luxor); The Steigenberger Golf Club (30 minutes from Hurghada). The Egyptian State Tourist Office can provide further information (see Contact Addresses section). Social Profile Food & Drink: Egyptian cuisine is excellent, combining many of the best traditions of Middle Eastern cooking, and there are both large hotel restaurants and smaller specialist ones throughout the main towns. Some of the larger hotels in Cairo and its environs have excellent kitchens serving the best cosmopolitan dishes. In the centre of Cairo, American-style snack bars are also spreading. Local specialities include foul (bean dishes), stuffed vine leaves, roast pigeon, grilled aubergines, kebabs and humus (chickpeas). Restaurants have waiter service, with table service for bars. Although Egypt is a Muslim country, alcohol is available in cafe-style bars and good restaurants. Nightlife: Sophisticated nightclubs, discotheques, casinos and good restaurants can be found in Cairo, Alexandria and most large towns. The nightlife in Luxor and Aswan often includes barbecues along the Nile. Shopping: The most interesting shopping area for tourists in Cairo is the old bazaar, Khan-el-Khalili, specialising in reproductions of antiquities. Jewellery, spices, copper utensils and Coptic cloth are some of the special items. There are also modern shopping centres available, particularly near Tehrir Square. Shopping hours: Winter: Tues, Wed, Fri-Sun 0900-1900, Mon and Thurs 0900-2000. During Ramadan, hours vary, with shops often closing on Sunday as well. Summer: Sat-Thurs 0900-1230 and 1600-2000 (closed Sunday). Special Events: For a complete list containing organiser details, contact the Egyptian State Tourist Office (see Contact Addresses section). The following is a selection of the major festivals and other special events celebrated in Egypt during 2003: Feb International Fishing Competition, Hurghada. Feb 16 International Egyptian Marathon, Luxor. Jul International Documentary Film Festival, Ismalia. Jul 20-Aug Shopping and Tourism Festival, Cairo. Aug Al-Ahram International Squash Competition.; Sharm el-Sheikh Festival; Egyptian International Bowling Competition. Aug 24-31 International Folklore Arts Festival, Ismailia; International Song Festival, Cairo. Sep 1-12 International Experimental Theatre Festival, Cairo. Sep 27 World Tourism Day. Oct Opera Aida Festival; International Egyptian Rally Festival; Festival of Perpendicular Sun, Abu Simbel. Oct 15-25 International Film Festival, Alexandria; Wafa’a el Nil Festival, Cairo. Nov Arab Horse Festival, Cairo; Festival of Tutankhamoun Tomb Exploration, Luxor. Nov 1-10 Arab Music Festival. Dec-Jan Coptic Christmas (although the day itself falls in January, festivities take place throughout the months of December and January in the Coptic quarter of Cairo). Social Conventions: Islam is the dominant influence and many traditional customs and beliefs are tied up with religion. The people are generally courteous and hospitable and expect similar respect from visitors. Handshaking will suffice as a greeting. Because Egypt is a Muslim country, dress should be conservative and women should not wear revealing clothes, particularly when in religious buildings and in towns (although the Western style of dress is accepted in modern nightclubs, restaurants, hotels and bars in Cairo, Alexandria and other tourist destinations). Official or social functions and smart restaurants usually require more formal wear. Smoking is very common. Photography: Tourists will have to pay a fee to take photographs inside pyramids, tombs and museums. Tipping: Ten to 12 per cent is added to hotel and restaurant bills but an extra tip of five per cent is normal. Taxi drivers generally expect ten per cent. Business Profile Economy: On taking power in the 1952, President Nasser quickly instituted a Soviet-style command economy that was closed to Western investment. After Nasser’s death, his successor, Anwar Sadat, gradually dismantled the existing system in favour of a policy of infitah (openness) towards investment. Egypt’s economy underwent rapid growth during the 1970s with the swift expansion of the oil industry, tourism and the Suez Canal. During the 1990s stern fiscal policies, agreed with the IMF and World Bank, and further market-oriented measures brought the Egyptian economy to its current condition. Today, although Egypt is running an annual trade deficit of around US$9 billion, inflation is about two per cent and annual growth just under five per cent. Egypt’s major industries are textiles, fertilisers, rubber products and cement. There are also steel production works and several vehicle-assembly plants. The main crops are cotton, rice, wheat, sugar, maize and a range of fruit and vegetables. Egypt’s major trading partners are the USA and the major EU economies (especially Italy and Germany). Expansion of the tourist sector was briefly hampered by the activities of Islamic fundamentalists. Agriculture, which relies on irrigation from the Nile, employs one third of the working population. Foreign aid, especially from the USA, is an important source of government funds. Commercial Information: The following organisations can offer advice: Egyptian-British Chamber of Commerce, Fourth Floor, 299 Oxford Street, London W1A 4EG, UK (tel: (020) 7499 3100; fax: (020) 7499 1070); or Federation of Egyptian Chambers of Commerce, 4 el-Falaky Square, Cairo (tel: (2) 795 3677; fax: (2) 795 1164 or 794 3801); or Cairo Chamber of Commerce (address as for the Federation) (tel: (2) 794 8491; fax: (2) 796 3603). Conferences/Conventions: Cairo has many hotels and three large meeting halls (seating up to 2000 people) which are equipped for use as conference centres. The new Cairo International Conference Centre, 12km (seven miles) east of Cairo International Airport, has seating for 2500 people, with an exhibition hall, banquet hall and comprehensive facilities. There is also a new convention centre at Alexandria University, which has a main hall with seating for 2400. For more information on conference facilities in Egypt, contact the Egyptian State Tourist Office (see Contact Addresses section); or Cairo International Conference and Exhibition Centre, Nasr Road, Nasr City, Cairo (tel: (2) 263 4631 or 263 4632; fax: (2) 263 4640; website: www.cicc.egnet.net); or Egyptian General Company for Tourism and Hotels, 4 Latin America Street, Garden City, Cairo (tel: (2) 794 2914; fax: (2) 796 4830). Climate Hot, dry summers with mild, dry winters and cold nights. Rainfall is negligible except on the coast. In April, the hot, dusty Khamsin wind blows from the Sahara. Required clothing: Lightweight cottons and linens during summer, with warmer clothes for winter and cooler evenings. History and Government History: The history of Egypt is one of the richest, oldest and most varied of any country in the world and the country’s place in the Middle East is as central now as it was in the fourth millennium BC. The unification of the Lower and the Upper Kingdoms, in about 3180 BC, marks a convenient starting point for Egyptian history. This dynamic, culturally sophisticated and powerful kingdom on the banks of the Nile grew into one of the greatest civilisations of the ancient world. The pre-Hellenic period is reckoned in Kingdoms (Old, Middle and New) and subdivided into dynasties. The IVth dynasty saw the construction of such architectural masterpieces as the Great Pyramid, while the XIth and XIIth saw the zenith of Egyptian power at the start of the second millennium. Tutankhamun, whose famous tomb was discovered in 1922, ruled briefly during the XVIIIth dynasty. From the XXth dynasty onwards, the power of Egypt was on the wane and the country was overrun on several occasions by foreign powers. The latest and most permanent of these invasions, which brought the Pharaonic period to an end, was that of Alexander the Great, in 332 BC. During the Hellenic and Augustan Roman period (circa AD 30), the emergence of law and literature in Alexandria allowed for seven centuries of comparative peace and economic stability. From the middle of the fourth century, Egypt became part of the Eastern Empire. Then, in AD 642, an invading Arab army – one manifestation of the rapid Islamic conquests that followed the death of Muhammad – was welcomed by the Coptic Christians in preference to their previous Greek rulers. The Fatamids gained control of the country in the late tenth century, however, their power declined after a century or so. The subsequent revival of Muslim fortunes and the reawakening of the spirit of Jihad (holy war) was largely associated with the career of Saladin, whose control of Egypt enabled him to reunite much of the Muslim world. Under Ottoman rule, Egypt became a somewhat neglected corner of a large and increasingly moribund empire. The arrival of Napoleon in AD 1798 brought Egypt once more into violent contact with a European power. By 1805, however, the struggle for independence had been won, with Muhammad Ali being recognised as Sultan. This was a period of great rivalry between the European powers, during which Egypt was buffeted between them. The Suez Canal was opened in 1869, although subsequent financial problems and internal struggles led to British occupation in 1882, which lasted until 1936. Thereafter, Egypt was formally independent but severely constrained by the British, who retained ultimate political and economic control over the country. Discontentment against the Government culminated in the 1952 revolution, orchestrated by young army officers led by Colonel Gamal Abdel Nasser. After consolidating his position as President of the new Government, Nasser took the Suez Canal into public ownership with all revenues directed to the Egyptian treasury. This led to the Suez Crisis of 1956, in which a combined Anglo-French-Israeli military operation attempted to seize and depose Nasser. The failure of that operation greatly enhanced Nasser’s standing and inspired supporters throughout the Middle East who shared his vision of a united Arab world, free from foreign interference. Disputes between Arab countries scuppered these plans. The defeat of Arab forces by Israel in the 1967 Six Day War deprived Egypt of the Sinai peninsula and the Gaza strip, land that was recovered only after another defeat by the Israelis in the Yom Kippur War of 1973 and the subsequent Egyptian-Israeli peace initiative, which culminated in the 1979 Camp David accord. The treaty was signed on the Egyptian side by Nasser’s successor, Anwar El-Sadat, and this, along with the rise of Islamic fundamentalism in Egypt after the Iranian revolution, accounted for his assassination in 1981. Sadat was succeeded by his deputy, Hosni Mubarak, who pursued similar policies to his former boss. However, the rapprochement with the Arab world (especially Saudi Arabia) at the Amman Summit in 1987 instigated a new phase of diplomatic relations within the Middle East and marked the rehabilitation of the Mubarak government into the wider Arab community. Egypt was closely involved in the Israeli-Palestinian negotiations during the early 1990s and broadly supportive of the Oslo agreement between the two sides. Subsequent developments have caused disquiet in Government circles and fury on the streets. However, Egypt is disinclined to do anything to disturb relations with the USA – after Israel, Egypt is the world’s largest single recipient of US aid. Of more immediate concern has been the rise of militant Islam. Mubarak is aware that Egypt’s deep-rooted social and economic problems render fundamentalism an attractive option for many young Egyptians. The government’s strategy has been to defuse the movement by holding controlled multi-party elections, at which selected Islamic candidates are allowed to stand, although the pro-government National Democratic Party won the latest elections to the Majlis (see Government below), held in October 2000. Meanwhile, the paramilitary wing of Islamic fundamentalism has been fiercely suppressed through strong action by the security forces and the use of draconian ‘anti-terrorist’ legislation. There has been no repeat to date of the notorious 1997 Luxor incident when 70 people, mostly foreign tourists, lost their lives. Many of the leading militants have since left the country and are believed to have linked up with Usama bin Laden’s al-Qaeda organisation. Government: The 454-member Majlis al-Sha’ab (People’s Assembly), which functions as the legislature, nominates the President; the nomination is endorsed by popular referendum. The president, who serves a six-year term, has executive power and appoints one or more Vice Presidents, a Prime Minister and a Council of Ministers. The Majlis al-Sha’ab is elected for a five-year term. There is also a 210-member advisory assembly, the Majlis ash-Shura. Copyright © 2003 Columbus Publishing Ltd.