United Kingdom Overview Country Overview The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland consists of England (including the Channel Islands and the Isle of Man), Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. The British landscape can be divided roughly into two kinds of terrain – highland and lowland. The highland area comprises the mountainous regions of Scotland, Northern Ireland, northern England and north Wales. Sandstone and limestone hills, long valleys and basins such as the Wash break up the lowland area on the east coast. Despite its small size, England is a country of much diversity. London, the capital, draws increasing numbers of visitors, not only to the well documented attractions of the West End with its theatres, cinemas, shopping streets, restaurants, hotels and nightclubs, but to its historic treasures such as Westminster Abbey, Big Ben, the Houses of Parliament and Buckingham Palace. In addition, London has the vast green spaces of Hampstead Heath, Hyde and Richmond parks; vibrant street markets in Camden, Brick Lane or Portobello Road and many distinctive old pubs. A short drive away from London are the elegant southern coast resorts of Eastbourne and Brighton; the beautiful villages of the New Forest; historic religious centres such as Winchester, Canterbury or Salisbury. Cornwall and Devon continue to draw visitors with their rolling hills, beautiful stretches of coastline and picturesque fishing villages. Similarly, the honey-stoned cottages of Moreton-in-Marsh or Bourton-on-the-Water are picture postcard material. Cumbria, more popularly known as ‘The Lake District’, has the stunning lakes of Windermere or Derwent Water and the cathedral city of Carlisle, close to Hadrian’s Wall. Scotland is a beautiful and sparsely populated country with rolling lowland, dramatic mountains, lochs and many offshore islands. Edinburgh is the capital and its Castle is not only Scotland’s number one tourist attraction but also home to the Scottish Crown Jewels. Its vast profile sits at the head of the Royal Mile which stretches down to the Palace of Holyrood House, the Queen’s official residence in Scotland. Edinburgh’s cultural life, with its Festival as the highpoint of the year, features much theatre, music and dance unrivalled outside London. The Scottish highlands – the towns of Oban and Fort William and the islands of Skye and Mull – are a stunning wilderness of mountains and moorlands, lochs and rivers. Wales is a country of great geographical variation with many long stretches of attractive and often rugged coastline. Cardiff is the principality’s capital and principal seaport. The castle, much of which dates back to the Middle Ages, was extensively added to during the 19th century, thus creating a strongly Victorian Gothic result. Much of Wales has a strong non-conformist ‘chapel’ tradition. Llandudno, Rhyl, Pembrokeshire and Porthmadog are among the better known resort areas. Northern Ireland contains some beautiful scenery, from the rugged coastline in the north and northeast to the gentle fruit-growing regions of Armagh. To the southeast of the province, Belfast provides shopping and city entertainment in the shape of theatres, cinema, a wide range of restaurants, the Grand Opera House and all the other attractions of any capital city. The rest of the British Isles comprises the Channel Islands of Guernsey, Jersey, Alderney (lying off the coast of Normandy). General Information The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland consists of England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. Although they form one administrative unit (with regional exceptions), they have had separate cultures, languages and political histories. Within this section are also the Channel Islands (excluding Guernsey and Jersey which have their own separate entries) and the Isle of Man which, although only dependencies of the British Crown, are included for convenience of reference. The United Kingdom section consists of a general introduction (covering the aspects which the four countries have in common), sections devoted to the four constituent countries, and sections dealing with the Channel Islands and the Isle of Man. Area: 242,910 sq km (93,788 sq miles). Population: 59,500,915 (1999). Population Density: 245.0 per sq km. Capital: London. Population: 7,285,000 (Greater London, 1999). GEOGRAPHY: The British landscape can be divided roughly into two kinds of terrain – highland and lowland. The highland area comprises the mountainous regions of Scotland, Northern Ireland, northern England and North Wales. The English Lake District in the northwest contains lakes and fells. The lowland area is broken up by sandstone and limestone hills, long valleys and basins such as the Wash on the east coast. In the southeast, the North and South Downs culminate in the White Cliffs of Dover. The coastline includes fjord-like inlets in the northwest of Scotland, spectacular cliffs and wild sandy beaches on the east coast and, further south, beaches of rock, shale and sand sometimes backed by dunes, and large areas of fenland in East Anglia. Note: More detailed geographical descriptions of the various countries may be found under the respective entries. Government: Constitutional monarchy. Head of State: HM Queen Elizabeth II since 1953. Head of Government: Prime Minister Tony Blair since 1997. Language: English. Some Welsh is spoken in parts of Wales, Gaelic in parts of Scotland and Northern Ireland, and French and Norman French in the Channel Islands. The many ethnic minorities within the UK also speak their own languages (eg Hindi, Urdu, Turkish, Greek, Cantonese, Mandarin, etc). Religion: Predominantly Protestant (Church of England), but many other Christian denominations also: Roman Catholic, Church of Scotland, Baptist, Methodist and other free churches. There are sizeable Jewish, Muslim and Hindu minorities. Time: GMT (GMT + 1 from last Sunday in March to Saturday before last Sunday in October). Electricity: 240 volts AC, 50Hz. Square three-pin plugs are standard and the visitor is unlikely to come across the older round three-pin type. Communications:   Telephone IDD is available. Country code: 44. Outgoing international code: 00. There are numerous public call boxes. Some boxes take coins, others phonecards or credit cards. There are a number of suppliers of telecommunication networks, chiefly British Telecom and Cable & Wireless. Mobile telephone GSM 900 and 1800 networks. Network operators include O2 (website: www.o2.co.uk), Orange (website: www.orange.co.uk), Vodafone (website: www.vodafone.co.uk) and T-Mobile (website: www.t-mobile.co.uk). Fax There are many high-street bureaux in all cities. Most hotels and offices have facilities. Internet There are Internet cafes and centres in most urban areas. ISPs include Freeserve (website: www.freeserve.com), AOL (website: www.aol.com) and BT Internet (website: www.btopenworld.com). Some multimedia phone booths, often located at main railway stations and airports, offer touch-screen access. Telemessage These may be sent from a post office or from a private telephone (tel: (0800) 190 190). Post Stamps are available from post offices and many shops and stores. There are stamp machines outside some post offices. Post boxes are red. First-class internal mail normally reaches its destination the day after posting (except in remote areas of Scotland), and most second-class mail the day after that. International postal connections are good. Post office opening hours are Mon-Fri 0900-1730 and Sat 0900-1230, although some post offices are open much longer hours. Press Dominated by about ten major newspapers, UK circulation figures are amongst the highest in the world. The most influential newspapers are The Times, The Guardian, The Daily Telegraph, The Financial Times, The Observer (on Sunday) and The Independent. The more popular ‘tabloid’ newspapers are The Sun, The Daily Mirror, The Daily Express and The Daily Mail. Most papers have an associated Sunday newspaper, though there are some independents. There are also daily regional newspapers, particularly in Scotland and the north. The London Evening Standard is produced in several editions daily, the first being at midday. BBC World Service and Voice of America frequencies: From time to time these change. BBC (website: www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice): MHz 15.49 12.10 9.410 6.195 Voice of America (website: www.voa.gov): MHz 15.21 11.82 9.760 1.197 Passport/Visa   Passport Required? Visa Required? Return Ticket Required? British Yes N/A N/A Australian Yes No No Canadian Yes No No USA Yes No No OtherEU 1 No No Japanese Yes No No PASSPORTS: Passport valid for whole period of the visit to the UK required by all except: 1. nationals of EU countries, Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway and Switzerland with a valid national ID card. Note: (a) A passport is not required for travel between Great Britain and Ireland, Northern Ireland, the Channel Islands or the Isle of Man. (b) Passengers transiting the UK destined for the Republic of Ireland are advised to hold return tickets to avoid delay and interrogation. VISAS: Required by all except the following: (a) nationals listed in the chart above; (b) nationals of Andorra, Antigua & Barbuda, Argentina, Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Bolivia, Botswana, Brazil, Brunei, Chile, Cook Islands, Costa Rica, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Dominica, El Salvador, Estonia, Grenada, Guatemala, Honduras, Hong Kong (SAR), Hungary, Iceland, Israel, Kiribati, Korea (Rep), Latvia, Lesotho, Liechtenstein, Lithuania, Macau (SAR), Malawi, Malaysia, Malta, Marshall Islands, Mexico, Monaco, Namibia, Nauru, New Caledonia, New Zealand, Nicaragua, Norway, Panama, Paraguay, Poland, Samoa, San Marino, Seychelles, Singapore, Slovenia, Solomon Islands, South Africa, St Kitts & Nevis, St Lucia, St Vincent & the Grenadines, Swaziland, Switzerland, Tonga, Trinidad & Tobago, Tuvalu, Uruguay, Vanuatu and Venezuela; (c) those in transit, provided arriving and departing by air within 24 hours and holding all necessary onward documentation. Note: Nationals not requiring visas are advised to be in possession of either a return ticket or, if arriving on a one-way ticket, proof of sufficient funds to accommodate and support themselves for the duration of stay. Types of visa and cost: Standard visit, student and visitor in transit: £36. One-year visit: £60. Two-year visit: £70. Five-year visit: £88. Ten-year vist: £150. Direct Airside Transit: £27. Fees are usually payable in the local currency and are subject to variation in both price and method of payment. Enquire at nearest High Commission/Embassy. Visa fees are not refundable. Validity: Visit visas: Six months, one year, two years, five years or ten years; all visit visas are valid for multiple entries within the period of validity. Visitor in transit visas are not required by those continuing their journey to a third country by the first connecting aircraft within 24 hours, provided possessing confirmed onward travel documentation. Those in transit to another country, who will remain in the UK for no longer than 48 hours, will need a visitor in transit visa. A visit visa is required for any transit stay over 48 hours. Direct Airside Transit visas are required by certain visa nationals, even if not entering the UK or changing airports during transit. These countries are Afghanistan, China (PR), Colombia, Croatia, Ecuador, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, Ghana, Iran, Iraq, Libya, Nigeria, Slovak Republic, Somalia, Sri Lanka, Turkey, Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus, Uganda and Zimbabwe. Application to: Nearest British Consulate (or Consular section at Embassy or High Commission); see Contact Addresses section. Application requirements: (a) Valid passport. (b) Two passport-size photos (some nationals may require three photos). (c) Completed application form (some nationals may be required to fill out an additional form). (d) Fee (postal applications must be accompanied by bank draft, postal or money order only). The supplementary documentaion required will vary depending on the type of application, however, in all cases it is advisable also to provide: (e) Evidence of funds (bank statements or pay slips). (f) Letter of invitiation. (g) Evidence of sponsors funds (if applicable). Working days required: Dependent on nationality of applicant. Applications usually take between one and ten working days. Applications that are referred to the Home Office may take up to 13 weeks. Temporary residence: Enquiries can be made at nearest British Consulate, Embassy or High Commission. Money Note: See the individual Money sections within the Jersey, Guernsey, Isle of Man and Northern Ireland sections for information on currency specific to these regions. Currency: Pound (£) = 100 pence. Notes are in denominations of £50, 20, 10 and 5. Additional bank notes issued by Scottish banks are legal tender in all parts of the UK. Coins are in denominations of £2 and 1, and 50, 20, 10, 5, 2 and 1 pence. Currency exchange: Money can be exchanged in banks, exchange bureaux and many hotels. The exchange bureaux are often open outside banking hours but charge higher commission rates. All major currencies can be exchanged. Cash can be obtained from a multitude of ATMs available across the country. Credit & debit cards: MasterCard, American Express, Diners Club and Visa are all widely accepted. Check with your credit or debit card company for details of merchant acceptability and other services which may be available. Travellers cheques: Widely accepted. To avoid additional exchange rate charges, travellers are advised to take travellers cheques in Pounds Sterling. Currency restrictions: There are no restrictions on the import or export of either local or foreign currency. Exchange rate indicators The following figures are included as a guide to the movements of Sterling against the US Dollar: Date Feb ’02 May ’02 Nov ’02 Feb ’03 $1.00= 0.70 0.69 0.63 0.63 Banking hours: Mon-Fri 0900-1700 (there may be some further variation in closing times). Some branches of certain banks are open Saturday morning. Duty Free Note: The Channel Islands are treated as being outside of the EU for the Duty Free section. The following items may be imported into the UK without incurring customs duty by travellers aged 17 years and over arriving from non-EU countries: 200 cigarettes or 100 cigarillos or 50 cigars or 250g of tobacco; 1l of alcoholic beverages stronger than 22 per cent or 2l of fortified or sparkling wine or other liqueurs; 2l of still table wine; 50g of perfume and 250ml of toilet water; other goods including souvenirs up to the value of £145. Goods obtained duty and tax paid in the EU are unlimited. Prohibited/restricted items: Prohibited items include firearms, drugs and pornography. The UK is one of the few regions of the world completely free of rabies and, until recently, all cats and dogs imported into the country must spend six months in quarantine. To bring animals and birds into the UK, an import licence must be obtained at least six months in advance. Some animals may now qualify for the PET Travel Scheme (PETS) and can be brought into the UK without being put into quarantine. At present, this is limited to certain travel carriers and animals. Severe penalties are imposed on persons attempting to smuggle domestic animals into the country. An illegally imported animal is liable to be destroyed. For further information about importing animals, contact the Department for the Environment, Food and Rural Affairs, Area 201, 1A Page Street, London SWIP 4PQ (website: www.defra.gov.uk/animalh/quarantine/index.htm), the PETS helpline (tel: (0870) 241 1710; fax: (020) 7904 6834; e-mail: pets.helpline@defra.gsi.gov.uk) or the nearest British mission abroad. Abolition of duty free goods within the EU: On 30 June 1999, the sale of duty-free alcohol and tobacco at airports and at sea was abolished in all 15 EU member states. Although there are now no limits imposed on importing tobacco and alcohol products from one EU country to another, travellers should note that they may be required to prove at customs that the goods purchased are for personal use only. Public Holidays Dec 25 2002 Christmas Day. Dec 26 Boxing Day. Jan 1 2003 New Year’s Day. Apr 18 Good Friday. Apr 21 Easter Monday. May 5 May Day Bank Holiday. May 26 Spring Bank Holiday. Dec 25 Christmas Day. Dec 26 Boxing Day. Jan 1 2004 New Year’s Day. Apr 9 Good Friday. Apr 12 Easter Monday. May 3 May Day Bank Holiday. May 24 Spring Bank Holiday. Dec 25 Christmas Day. Dec 26 Boxing Day. Note: Public holidays are often referred to as ‘bank holidays’ in the UK. Health   Special Precautions Certificate Required Yellow Fever No No Cholera No No Typhoid and Polio No N/A Malaria No N/A Health care: The National Health Service provides free medical treatment (at hospitals and general surgeries) to all who are ordinarily resident in the UK but requires payment for dental treatment, prescriptions and spectacles. Immediate first aid/emergency treatment is free for all visitors, after which charges are made unless the visitor’s country has a reciprocal health agreement with the UK. The following have signed such agreements: all EU countries (but Danish residents of the Faroe Islands are not covered), Anguilla, Australia, Barbados, British Virgin Islands, Bulgaria, Channel Islands (applies only if the visitor is staying less than three months), CIS countries, Czech Republic, Falkland Islands, Hungary, Iceland, Isle of Man, Malta (for visits up to 30 days), Montserrat, New Zealand, Norway, Poland, Romania, Russian Federation, St Helena, Slovak Republic, Turks & Caicos Islands and Yugoslavia (Serbia and Montenegro). The agreements provide differing degrees of exemption for different nationalities; full details of individual agreements are available from the Department of Health. See also the Health appendix. Travel - International AIR: The principal national airline is British Airways (BA). Approximate flight times: From Birmingham to Amsterdam is 1 hour 15 minutes; to Dublin is 1 hour 5 minutes; to Düsseldorf is 1 hour 20 minutes; to Frankfurt/M is 1 hour 40 minutes; and to Paris is 1 hour 10 minutes. From Glasgow to Paris is 2 hours 50 minutes via Birmingham. From Manchester to Amsterdam is 1 hour 25 minutes; to Brussels is 1 hour 35 minutes; to Dublin is 1 hour; to Düsseldorf is 1 hour 25 minutes; to Frankfurt/M is 1 hour 50 minutes; to Milan is 2 hours 25 minutes; to Nice is 2 hours 20 minutes; to Paris is 1 hour 30 minutes; and to Rome is 2 hours 55 minutes. For approximate durations of international flights from London, see the Travel – International section of the destination country. International airports: See Travel – International in the relevant country sections for information on UK airports. Departure tax: None. SEA: There are many ports offering ferry connections between the UK and mainland Europe, Ireland, the Channel Islands, the Isle of Wight, the Scilly Isles and the Isle of Man. UK ferry operators include: Stena Line (tel: (08705) 707 070; website: www7.stenaline.com); P&O Ferries (tel: (08705) 202 020; website: www.poferries.com); P&O European Ferries (tel: (0870) 242 4999; website: www.poportsmouth.com); Hoverspeed (tel: (0870) 240 8070; website: www.hoverspeed.co.uk); Norse Irish Ferries (tel: (01232) 779 090; website: www.norsemerchant.com); Condor Ferries (tel: (0845) 345 2000; website: www.condorferries.co.uk); Brittany Ferries (tel: (08703) 665 333; website: www.brittany-ferries.com); Isles of Scilly Travel (tel: (08457) 105 555; website: www.islesofscilly-travel.co.uk); Red Funnel (tel: (0870) 444 8898; website: www.redfunnel.co.uk); DFDS Seaways (tel: (08705) 333 000; website: www.dfdsseaways.co.uk); P&O North Sea Ferries (tel: (08701) 296 002; website: www.ponsf.com); Fjord Line (tel: (0191) 296 1313; website: www.fjordline.com); P&O Scottish Ferries (website: www.poscottishferries.co.uk); Swansea–Cork Ferries (tel: (01792) 456 116); Isle of Man Steam Packet Co (tel: (01624) 661 661; website: www.steam-packet.com); Irish Ferries (tel: (08705) 171 717; website: www.irishferries.ie); Caledonian Macbrayne (tel: (01475) 650 100; website: www.calmac.co.uk); and Wightlink (tel: (08705) 827 744; website: www.wightlink.co.uk). RAIL: Trains meet connecting ferries at Dover, Newhaven, Portsmouth, Weymouth and Folkestone, sailing for France, Spain, Germany and Belgium (board at Victoria Station in London); and at Harwich, sailing for The Netherlands, Germany and Scandinavia (board at Liverpool Street). See also the sections on the Channel Tunnel below. Eurotunnel or the Channel Tunnel: All road vehicles are carried through the tunnel in Eurotunnel shuttles running between the two terminals, one near Folkestone in Kent, with direct road access from the M20, and one just outside Calais, with links to the A16/A26 motorway (Exit 13). Each shuttle is made up of 12 single- and 12 double-deck carriages, and vehicles are directed to single-deck or double-deck carriages depending on their height. There are facilities for cars and motorcycles, coaches, minibuses, caravans, campervans and other vehicles over 1.85m (6.07ft). Bicycles are provided for. Passengers generally travel with their vehicles. Heavy goods vehicles are carried on special shuttles and drivers travel in a separate carriage. Terminals and shuttles are well equipped for disabled passengers, and Passenger Terminal buildings contain a variety of shops, restaurants, bureaux de change and other amenities. The journey takes about 35 minutes from platform to platform and about one hour from motorway to motorway. Services run every day of the year, and there are between two and five an hour, depending on the time of day. There is a reservation system and a turn-up-and-go service. Motorists pass through customs and immigration before they board the shuttle without further checks on arrival. Fares vary according to length of stay, time of day and time of year and whether you have a reservation or not. The price applies to the car, regardless of the number of passengers or size of the car. The fare may be paid in cash, by cheque or by credit card. There is a reduction of £2 when booking online. For further information, contact Eurotunnel Customer Services UK (tel: (08705) 353 535; fax: (01303) 288 786; e-mail: callcentre@eurotunnel.com; website: www.eurotunnel.com). The Eurostar: The direct Eurostar train link through the Channel Tunnel between London and Lille, Brussels or Paris started operating on 14 November 1994. Eurostar is a service provided by the railways of Belgium, the United Kingdom and France, operating direct high-speed trains from London (Waterloo International) to Paris (Gare du Nord) and to Brussels (Midi/Zuid). It currently takes three hours from London to Paris and 2 hours 40 minutes from London to Brussels. Trains depart up to 18 times a day from Waterloo to Paris, and up to 8 times a day from Waterloo to Brussels. Work has now started on the UK section of the high-speed rail line which is being built in two stages. When the first stage from the Channel Tunnel through Kent to the outskirts of London is completed in September 2003 travel time between London and Paris will be reduced to 2 hours 35 minutes. The second stage, to be completed in January 2007, will take the route to a new terminal at St Pancras. When it is completed, the transit times between London St Pancras and Brussels will be just 2 hours and between London St Pancras and Paris just 2 hours 15 minutes. The Eurostar trains are equipped with standard-class and first-class seating, buffet, bar and are staffed by multi-lingual, highly trained personnel. Pricing is competitive with the airlines, and there is a large range of different tickets and prices. Children aged between four and 11 years benefit from a special fare in first class as well as in standard class. Children under four years old travel free but cannot be guaranteed a seat. Wheelchair users and blind passengers together with one companion get a special fare. For further information and reservations, contact Eurostar (tel: (0870) 6000 792 (travel agents) or (08705) 186 186 (public; within the UK) or + 44 (1233) 617 575 (public; outside the UK only); website: www.eurostar.com) or Rail Europe (tel: (08705) 848 848). Travel agents can obtain refunds for unused tickets from Eurostar Trade Refunds, Second Floor, Kent House, 81 Station Road, Ashford, Kent TN23 1PD. Complaints and comments may be sent to Eurostar Customer Relations, Eurostar House, Waterloo Station, London SE1 8SE (tel: (020) 7928 5163). General enquiries and information requests must be made by telephone. Enquiries in France should be made to Eurostar in Paris (tel: (8) 3635 3539; only available from within France). Information about package deals, inclusive of accommodation and travel on Eurostar can be obtained from Eurostar Holidays Direct (tel: (0870) 167 6767; fax: (0870) 010 0284). ROAD: Few formalities are encountered when driving between Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland. Eurolines, departing from Victoria Coach Station in London, serves destinations in the United Kingdom. For further information, contact Eurolines (4 Cardiff Road, Luton, Bedfordshire, L41 1PP; tel: (08705) 143 219; fax: (01582) 400 694; website: www.eurolines.com or www.gobycoach.com). Travel - Internal Note: This section is a general introduction to transport within the UK. Further information is given in the individual Travel sections for England, Scotland, Wales, Northern Ireland, the Channel Islands and the Isle of Man. AIR: British Airways operates a shuttle service to Belfast, Edinburgh, Glasgow and Manchester amongst other cities. Other internal operators include: Aer Lingus (EI), KLM UK (UK), bmi british midland (BD), EasyJet (U2), British European (JY) and Ryanair (FR). Approximate flight times: From London to Aberdeen is 1 hour 25 minutes; to Belfast is 1 hour 20 minutes; to Edinburgh is 1 hour 25 minutes; to Glasgow is 1 hour 20 minutes; to Jersey is 1 hour; to Manchester is 55 minutes; and to Newcastle is 1 hour and 10 minutes. From Aberdeen to Birmingham is 1 hour 40 minutes; to Glasgow is 55 minutes; to London is 1 hour 25 minutes; to Manchester is 1 hour 5 minutes; to Orkney is 45 minutes; and to Shetland is 1 hour 5 minutes. From Belfast to Birmingham is 1 hour; to Glasgow is 50 minutes; to London is 1 hour 20 minutes; and to Manchester is 1 hour. From Birmingham to Aberdeen is 1 hour 40 minutes; to Belfast is 1 hour; to Edinburgh is 1 hour; to Glasgow is 1 hour. From Edinburgh to Birmingham is 1 hour and to London is 1 hour 25 minutes. From Glasgow to Aberdeen is 55 minutes; to Belfast is 50 minutes; to Birmingham is 1 hour; to Inverness is 50 minutes; to London is 1 hour 20 minutes; to Manchester is 1 hour 5 minutes; and to Stornoway is 1 hour 5 minutes. From Manchester to Aberdeen is 1 hour 5 minutes; to Belfast is 1 hour; to Glasgow is 1 hour 5 minutes; to Jersey is 1 hour 35 minutes; and to London is 55 minutes. SEA: Information on travel to the Scottish islands, the Channel Islands, Ireland, and the Isle of Man are given in the relevant Travel sections for those countries. RAIL: The UK is served by an excellent network of railways (16,500km/10,250 miles in total). Intercity lines provide fast services between London and major cities, and there are services to the southeast and to major cities in the Midlands, the north and south Wales and between Edinburgh and Glasgow. Some rural areas are less well served (eg the north coast of the west country, parts of East Anglia, North Yorkshire and Northumberland, parts of inland Wales, Northern Ireland and southern and northern Scotland), although local rail services are generally fairly comprehensive. Rail passes: There are many discretionary fares, and visitors using trains may like to consider one of the all-line Britrail range of passes giving unlimited travel. This is available to visitors from overseas and is not available in the UK; tickets must be purchased in their home country, although tickets can be collected in the UK. Further details can be obtained either from Railtrack (website: www.railtrack.co.uk) or Network Rail Group (website: www.networkrail.com). In 2002, the Network Rail Group completed the acquisition of Railtrack Plc. For information about UK train services and fares, contact National Rail Enquiries (tel: (08457) 484 950). It can be much cheaper to purchase rail tickets in advance. Disabled travellers are also entitled to discounted train fares; see the Disabled Traveller appendix. InterRail cards are valid; holders may be entitled to discounts on ferry fares. ROAD: There are trunk roads (‘A’ roads) linking all major towns and cities in the UK. Roads in rural areas (‘B’ roads) can be slow and winding, and in upland areas may become impassable in winter. Motorways radiate from London and there is also a good east–west and north–south network in the north and the Midlands. The M25 motorway circles London and connects at various junctions with the M1, M3, M4, M10, M11 and M40. The only motorway that leaves England is the M4 from London to south Wales. Access to Scotland is by the A1/A1(M) or the A68 to Edinburgh, or the M6 to Carlisle followed by the A74 to Glasgow. Within Scotland, motorways link Edinburgh, Glasgow and Perth. In Northern Ireland, motorways run from Belfast to Dungannon and from Belfast to Antrim. For further information on roads within each country, see the respective Travel sections. Coach: Every major city has a coach terminus, in London it is Victoria Coach station, about 1km (0.7 miles) from the train station. There are coach services to all parts of the country. Many coaches have on-board toilets and refreshments. Private coaches may be hired by groups wishing to tour the UK; these can be booked in advance and will visit most major tourist attractions. Many of these destinations now have coach parks nearby. The main carrier is National Express. Traffic regulations: Traffic drives on the left. Speed limits are 30mph (48kph) in urban areas, 70mph (113kph) on motorways and dual carriageways, elsewhere 50mph (80kph) or 60mph (97kph) as marked. Petrol is graded in a star system: 2-star (90 octane) and 4-star (97 octane). Unleaded petrol is also available at all petrol stations and is sold at a lower price than leaded petrol. Seatbelts must be worn by the driver and front seat passenger. Where rear seat belts have been fitted they must also be worn. Documentation: National driving licences are valid for one year. Drivers must have Third Party insurance and vehicle registration documents. Automobile associations: The RAC and AA are able to provide a full range of services to UK members touring the UK. These organisations can also assist people who are travelling from abroad with maps, tourist information and specially marked routes to major events or places of interest. URBAN: All cities and towns have bus services of varying efficiency and cost. London, Newcastle, Liverpool and Glasgow have underground railways, London and Glasgow’s being very old and Newcastle’s very new. The urban areas of Glasgow, Cardiff, Manchester, Liverpool and Birmingham are also well served by local railway trains. Manchester has an efficient modern tram service. Licensed taxi operators are generally metered; small supplements may be charged for weekends, ‘bank holidays’, excess baggage and late-night travel. In the larger cities, unlicensed operators offer a cheaper (but less efficient and knowledgeable) unmetered service with fares based loosely on elapsed clock mileage; these taxis are called mini-cabs and can be summoned by telephone. Accommodation HOTELS: These tend to be much more expensive in large cities, especially London. Different classification schemes are used by the various countries. See the relevant country sections for details. More information is also available from the British Hospitality Association, Queens House, 55-56 Lincoln’s Inn Fields, London WC2A 3BH (tel: (020) 7404 7744; fax: (020) 7404 7799; e-mail: bha@bha.org.uk; website: www.bha-online.org.uk), and a selection of some of the finest hotels in the United Kingdom is available online (website: www.distinctionworld.com). GUEST-HOUSES: There are guest-houses and bed & breakfast facilities throughout the country. SELF-CATERING: Cottages can be rented in many areas. For information, contact the local tourist board, or consult the relevant section in local and national papers. CAMPING AND CARAVANNING: There are camping and caravan sites throughout the UK, for short and long stays. Some sites hire out tents or caravans to those without their own equipment. Most sites offer basic facilities, while some have playgrounds, clubs, shops, phones and sports areas. HOLIDAY CAMPS: These offer accommodation, food and a full range of leisure activities generally at an all-inclusive price. They provide good holidays for families, and some run babysitting and children’s clubs. YOUTH HOSTELS: There are more than 240 youth hostels in England and Wales. Standards vary greatly, from very basic night-time accommodation for hikers and cyclists, to modern hostels and motels which are often used by families and groups. Prices are very reasonable. For information, contact the Youth Hostel Association of England and Wales, Trevelyan House, Dimple Road, Matlock, Derbyshire DE4 3YH (tel: (01629) 592 600; fax: (01629) 592 702; e-mail: customerservices@yha.org.uk; website: www.yha.org.uk). Introduction Details of resorts and places of interest throughout the UK may be found by consulting the respective sections for England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. There are also separate sections for the individual Channel Islands (Jersey, Guernsey, Alderney and Sark and Herm) and for the Isle of Man. Sport & Activities The United Kingdom has a wealth of sports and activities to offer visitors – from classic sporting events for spectators, to opportunities for numerous outdoor pursuits. It is well known that many popular sports originated in the UK. Football, cricket, rugby, golf and tennis, to name but a few, were invented here. These sports are still avidly followed and played by many enthusiasts. For more specific information on sport in the different areas of the UK, see the individual country sections. Spectator sports: Football is the UK’s most popular spectator sport. The season lasts from August to May, and matches are played mainly at weekends. Most football clubs sell tickets in advance, though for some clubs (eg, Arsenal, Liverpool, Manchester United) games will be sold out months in advance. The main cricket (played strictly between April and September) and tennis tournaments are held in England, while rugby, is particularly popular in Wales. Horseracing and motor racing are very popular throughout the UK, with the chance of making a fortune through the bookmakers being a major attraction. The best known rowing and sailing regattas take place in England, and are regarded as important social events. Golf: There are courses in every corner of the UK, from famous courses to more modest ones. The British Tourist Authority publishes an in-depth guide to 150 courses, containing information on fees and visitor availability called Golf Britain. Outdoor pursuits: Walking, mountaineering, caving, climbing and cycling are all easy to arrange. With the UK’s countryside ranging from rolling fields and pleasant farmland to austere mountains, all kinds of walks are possible. There are 11 national parks and numerous other protected natural areas in England and Wales. Further information on national parks, and specific paths can be found in the individual country sections. Although nearly all land (including land in national parks) in the UK is privately owned, walkers have access to it along rights of way which are marked on maps and usually signposted. There are also areas where it is permissible to go beyond rights of way, and these are known as ‘open country’. An excellent series of maps is published by the Ordnance Survey, a government agency. Widely available and covering the whole of the UK except Northern Ireland (maps of which are published by the Ordnance Survey of Ireland), these come in different scales (1:50,000 and 1:25,000). There are many outdoor pursuits centres which offer tuition in mountaincraft and watersports and organise trips. Moreover, walking is a very popular activity in the UK, and there are several influential organisations which exist to promote the interests of walkers. The Youth Hostels Association (see Accommodation section) provides a network of cheap hostels, and runs courses; The Ramblers’ Association, Camelford House, Second Floor, 87-90 Albert Embankment, London SE1 7TW (tel: (020) 7339 8500; fax: (020) 7339 8501; e-mail: ramblers@london.ramblers.org.uk; website: www.ramblers.org.uk) produces leaflets and a very useful Yearbook (cost: £5.99 plus postage) and organises trips and group walks. Note: Following the outbreak of foot and mouth disease in England during Spring/Summer 2001, some footpaths or areas of countryside were off limits to the general public. Although the last of these reopened in September 2002, it is a good idea generally to check footpath status with the Ramblers Association ‘walkwatch’ page (website: www.ramblers.org.uk/info/walkwatch.html) for up-to-date information. English courses: There are many language schools where foreign students can learn English. More than 370 of these schools are inspected and approved (accredited) by the British Council under their accreditation scheme. A wide variety of courses is available, from business English to courses designed especially for young people and those studying for specific examinations. Many schools organise social programmes and accommodation with local families. Further information and advice about choosing a language course can be obtained from the British Council, Education Information Scheme, 10 Spring Gardens, London SW1A 2BN (tel: (020) 7930 8466; fax: (020) 7839 6347; e-mail: generalenquiries@britishcouncil.org; website: www.britishcouncil.org). The British Council’s overseas offices can also provide information and advice. Social Profile Each of the countries of the United Kingdom has its own particular national dishes and drinks, festivals and other events of interest, its own attractions for shoppers and its own nightlife and other entertainments. Details may be found by consulting the individual country sections. Social Conventions: The monarchy, though now only symbolic, is a powerful and often subconscious unifying force, and members of the Royal Family are the subject of unceasing fascination, with their every move avidly followed and reported by the popular press, both in Britain and abroad. Handshaking is customary when introduced to someone for the first time. Normal social courtesies should be observed when visiting someone’s home and a small present such as flowers or chocolates is appreciated. It is not customary to start eating until everyone is served. Clothing: A tie, trousers and shoes (as opposed to jeans and trainers) are necessary for entry to some nightclubs and restaurants, otherwise casual wear is widely acceptable. Use of public places: Topless sunbathing is allowed on certain beaches and tolerated in some parks. Smoking or non-smoking areas will usually be clearly marked. Cigarettes should not legally be sold to children under 16 years of age. Tipping: In hotels, a service charge of ten to 12 per cent is usual, which may be added to the bill. Ten to 15 per cent is usual for restaurants and it too is often added to the bill, in which case a further tip is not required. Ten to 15 per cent is also usual for taxi drivers and hairdressers but this is not included in the bill. There is no legal requirement to pay service charges that have been added to bills and if the service has been unsatisfactory, it may be deducted by the customer. Travellers should remember, however, that in the UK wage levels for catering staff are set at a deliberately low level in the expectation that tips will make up the difference. Business Profile Economy: The UK is a member of the G7 group of the world’s leading industrial nations. Since the end of World War II, the UK has followed the trend among all major economies away from industrial production towards service industries, which now account for three quarters of national income. The transition has often been painful, and although the UK is not unique in this respect – most Western European economies have undergone a similar process during the past 20 years – a worse situation might have occurred without the cushion of revenues from North Sea oil. The UK’s traditionally strong agricultural sector has suffered a number of serious setbacks, largely the result of dubious practices which appear to have been rife throughout British agriculture. These undoubtedly contributed to two major outbreaks of disease (BSE and foot-and-mouth) which have caused havoc in the industry and the loss of billions of pounds in export income. Engineering (especially of military products), chemicals, electronics, construction and textiles are the main components of the industrial sector. Among service industries, tourism, media, retail, financial services, telecommunications and computer services are the most important and have undergone rapid growth, while heavy industries have suffered relative decline. The Conservative administration of the 1980s and early 1990s was the first in Western Europe to dismantle the mixed economy of private and state-owned industries that had become the standard model for members of the EU. Many former state-owned industries including oil, telecommunications, gas and electricity, were sold to private shareholders, while the Government imposed tight fiscal controls and enacted pro-business legislation. Controls on trade and on the movement of capital were removed. The model has since been adopted throughout both the industrialised and developing worlds and largely maintained by the Labour administration which took office in 1997. The UK’s external economic relations are now dominated by the EU (which accounts for 70 per cent of all UK trade), although there are other important trade links with the USA, the Far East and with members of the Commonwealth. Nonetheless, Europe dominates the economic agenda and the overriding issue facing present and future governments is the extent to which they are willing to integrate into the European economy. The argument is now focused on whether Britain should adopt the single European currency, the Euro. Although the economy met the necessary criteria, the Government chose not to join up when the currency was introduced in 1999. The Government has since remained firmly on the fence; while many political and business leaders favour membership, there is huge opposition in the country at large. The conclusion of the debate may be decisive to Britain’s economic future. Business: Businesspeople are generally expected to dress smartly (suits are the norm). Appointments should be made and the exchange of business cards is customary. A knowledge of English is essential. Office hours: Mon-Fri 0900/0930-1700/1730. Commercial Information: The following organisation can offer advice: The British Chambers of Commerce, Manning House, 22 Carlisle Place, London SW1P 1JA (tel: (020) 7565 2000; e-mail: info@britishchambers.org.uk; website: www.chamberonline.co.uk). Conferences/Conventions: The UK conference scene is well organised with several publications comprehensively listing every possible kind of venue (including dedicated centres, hotels, universities, football grounds, race courses, manor houses, castles and theatres). In addition, regional and local tourist boards promote their own areas vigorously. London and Birmingham have an international reputation; there are several excellent conference venues. There are other towns with facilities of near comparable size, and comprehensive back-up services are available everywhere. Glasgow, Manchester, Newcastle and Bristol are among the cities offering a variety of venues, whilst smaller towns such as Chester, Salisbury, York, Llandudno and Inverness offer uniquely attractive environments without sacrificing efficiency. The large political parties of the UK traditionally hold their conferences in seaside towns during the winter; locations include Blackpool (the famous Winter Gardens), Bournemouth and Brighton. Those looking for conventional venues will find the maximum seating capacity (19,000 persons) in London; however, if organisers wished to book Wembley Stadium they could probably do it, so, effectively, there is no upper limit. All parts of the UK are easily accessible by rail and air from London. The British Conference Destinations Directory gives brief regional details and is published by the British Association of Conference Destinations, Sixth Floor, Charles House, 148-149 Great Charles Street, Birmingham B3 3HT (tel: (0121) 212 1400; fax: (0121) 212 3131; e-mail: info@bacd.org.uk; website: www.bacd.org.uk). Climate Owing to its being an island, the UK is subject to very changeable weather. Extremes of temperature are rare but snow, hail, torrential rain and heatwaves can occur almost without warning. For detailed descriptions, see Climate in the respective country sections. Required clothing: Waterproofing throughout the year. Warm clothing is advisable at all times, and is essential for any visits to upland areas. History and Government History: The Romans conquered and settled the major part of the British mainland between the first and fifth centuries AD, although their influence was limited in the northern and western regions. After their withdrawal (410-442) the island was invaded by Jutes, Saxons and Angles, who established seven kingdoms in the area south of Hadrian’s Wall. Scotland and Wales remained Pictish/Celtic. By the early-ninth century Wessex had emerged as the dominant kingdom and was the spearhead of resistance to the Danish invasions, particularly during the reign of Alfred the Great. By the time of Edward the Confessor (1042-1066), England was the most highly organised state in Europe and this position was consolidated when Norman military feudal organisation was imposed by William I and his successors (notably Henry I and Henry II) after 1066. Inheritance and dynastic marriage had given England control of most of France by the 12th century, and the territorial disputes were not settled until the end of the Hundred Years’ War in 1453. The 12th century also saw the conquest of Ireland, although it was never fully integrated into the political life of the mainland (see Ireland section). The constitutional history of England between the 11th and 15th centuries can be viewed in terms of the gradual expansion of the powers of the crown and the increasing efficiency and sophistication of the monarch’s administration. This was a policy which often ran contrary to the interests of the aristocracy and on many occasions, notably during the reigns of Stephen, John, Henry III, Edward II and Richard II, constitutional conflicts developed which checked or reversed the trend; indeed the last two of these were deposed to make way for a ruler whom the barons felt would be more amenable to their wishes. The deposition of Richard II and the accession of his cousin Henry IV of Lancaster ushered in 60 years of weak central government and low royal prestige (notwithstanding Henry V’s outstanding victory at Agincourt in 1415 and his subsequent conquest of most of France) which culminated in the dynastic conflict known as the Wars of the Roses. The throne changed hands on six occasions between 1461 and 1485, when the Tudor Henry VII defeated the Yorkist Richard III at the Battle of Bosworth. One of the most able of English monarchs, Henry VII, managed to revive the power and prestige of the crown considerably. In 1509 his son Henry VIII succeeded to a state in many ways stronger and wealthier than it had ever been before. Scotland’s political development during this period was dominated by largely unsuccessful royal attempts at centralisation; nevertheless the kingdom did manage to protect its independence in the face of constant English aggression, largely as a result of the talents of the members of the House of Stuart who managed to preserve some semblance of royal authority, despite the fact that every ruler between 1437 and 1625 came to the throne whilst a minor. Their reward came in 1603 when James VI succeeded Elizabeth I of England (see below). Wales remained as a Principality during this time, occasionally united and usually very much at the mercy of English political ambitions. The Tudor period in England (1485–1603) witnessed several important developments: the re-establishment of central power, the break with Rome under Henry VIII, the beginnings of overseas expansion, the union of England and Wales and the flowering of Elizabethan and Jacobean drama. In retrospect, possibly the most important development was the remarkable growth of the power of Parliament. Accustomed since its slightly hazy beginnings in the baronial revolts of the 1260s to representing grievances and – particularly as a consequence of Edward III’s urgent need for money to fight the French – granting taxation, the institution acquired a new purpose in the 1530s. Henry VIII used it as a vehicle for passing the Act of Supremacy and other legislation pertaining to the break with Rome, thus giving Parliament the prestige and self-confidence to interfere in and influence the affairs of state which it never lost. Elizabeth I was succeeded by her cousin James VI of Scotland, although the formal union of the countries was not effected until 1707. The increasing power of Parliament (see above) was to prove a more effective force in curtailing the power of the crown than the medieval barons had been, and the English Civil War in the 1640s proved how real and effective this power had become: the conflict finally ended with the dramatic and, to most contemporaries, horrific spectacle of the execution of Charles I in 1649 and the establishment of a confused series of republics and protectorates during the English Revolution (1649–1660). Despite the prodigious wealth of political ideas which surfaced in this period – which ranged from the re-establishment of the monarchy under Oliver Cromwell to the creation of an Evangelical Republic to prepare for the imminently expected Second Coming – by 1660 the Revolution had run out of viable ideas and Charles II was invited back almost on his own terms. Amazingly, within 20 years he almost managed to assert absolutism, although this opportunity finally disappeared with the abdication and flight of the unpopular (and Catholic) successor, his brother James II. On this occasion, Parliament made no mistake, inviting (this time on their terms) the Protestant William III of Orange to take the crown in 1689. From this date on the powers of the crown became severely curtailed: his successor, Queen Anne, was the last monarch to refuse the royal assent to an Act of Parliament. The 18th century saw Great Britain’s (so-called after 1707) emergence as a major colonial and industrial power, mainly at the expense of France in such conflicts as the Seven Years’ War. The American colonies were lost in 1776, but eventual victory in the Napoleonic Wars confirmed British naval supremacy. By this time, Great Britain was one of the world’s leading military and industrial powers, having spearheaded techniques in almost every field of production during the Industrial Revolution. While the growth of the colonies provided markets and sources of raw materials, the demographic increase gave the new industries a ready supply of cheap labour, and the explosion of urban wealth and population was probably the most dramatic social change since the introduction of feudalism. Great Britain and Ireland were formally united in 1801 under the name of the United Kingdom. The long reign of Victoria (1837–1901) is associated with the period of greatest British involvement, conquest, evangelisation and overseas settlement, as well as further domestic economic and demographic growth. At the height of empire, Britain ruled vast tracts of the globe. The legacy of empire still continues today with problems and conflicts worldwide that can be directly attributed to the drawing of national borders, not on national or ethnic lines, but as a result of colonial expansion at the dictate of commercial gain. World War I, in which Britain suffered heavy losses, marked with hindsight the end of the old system of European and colonial empires and was followed in Britain by a depression, the first signs of an economic decline that is still evident to this day. Relations between Britain and Ireland, never good, flared into civil war in 1916, and all but the six, largely Protestant, northeastern counties became independent in 1921. The colonial possessions were given up after the defeat of Nazi Germany in World War II and since then the outlook of the UK has been dominated by European concerns, although British influence (often covert) in the ex-colonies remains strong. Certain vestiges of the empire, such as the Falkland Islands, Hong Kong and Gibraltar, have caused varying degrees of friction with other states. After World War II, the empire was effectively finished: the opposition of the USA, which had now assumed the mantle of the world’s principal power, saw to that. At home, the Liberal Party was challenged, and quickly overtaken, as the main opposition to the Conservative Party by the Labour Party, which had its roots in the organised labour movement which grew up around the turn of the century. Labour formed its first government under Ramsay MacDonald in 1924. After a wartime coalition government of national unity – with both Labour and Conservative represented under Winston Churchill between 1940 and 1945 – Labour and Conservative have exerted a two-party stranglehold on the government of the UK. The Labour government of 1945–51 was significant for major reforms of the health, education, housing and social service systems. The consensus started to break down in the 1970s as economic stagnation, endemic inflation and a growing trade deficit made it clear to many that the post-war prescriptions were no longer valid or relevant. It was against this background, and the decline of traditional manufacturing industries, that Margaret Thatcher came to power at the head of a government in 1979. The 1980s were a decade characterised internally by radical domestic policies of privatisation, local government reform and a revision of the tax structure – leading to the introduction of the controversial ‘Community Charge’ (‘Poll Tax’). Thatcher went on to win general elections in 1983 and 1987. Her ‘finest hour’ was probably the military victory over the Argentinians in the South Atlantic War of 1982. Her eventual political demise in November 1990 came not from a decision of the electorate, but from worries within her own Conservative Party about the electoral consequences of her policies (especially the Poll Tax and the EU) and her single-minded approach to their implementation. Their disaffection culminated in a challenge to Thatcher’s leadership in the autumn of 1990 – MPs were then able to challenge a sitting Prime Minister under Conservative Party rules. The challenge served to crystallise many of the misgivings felt within the party about her continuing in office. Sensing her position being undermined and that she had lost the confidence of senior colleagues, Thatcher resigned. Her successor was the Chancellor of the Exchequer, John Major. Major’s immediate inheritance was his predecessor’s agreement to participate in the US-led UN coalition formed to oust the Iraqis from their military occupation of Kuwait. Approximately 30,000 British service personnel eventually took part in this successful operation in early 1991. Iraq has been a continuous foreign policy migraine for successive British governments. However, more important has been the evolution of Britain’s position in the European Union. The Maastricht agreement of 1991 took European integration far beyond the original conception of a ‘common market’, introducing major policies to harmonise legislation in the areas of social policy, immigration, policing and finance. The British were highly sceptical of some elements of the Maastricht package and negotiated exemptions from its provisions. Despite the ousting of Thatcher, and to widespread surprise, the Conservatives won another general election victory in April 1992, albeit with a reduced majority. The opposition Labour Party, despairing at the prospect of more than 15 years out of office, embarked on a major overhaul of its policies and public image under the leadership of a new leader – Tony Blair. The self-styled ‘New Labour’ jettisoned many policies previously thought of as sacrosanct in order to capture as much as possible of the elusive ‘middle ground’ – even at the price of alienating some traditional supporters. By 1997, Labour was ready. The Conservatives were stale, bereft of ideas and dogged by ‘sleaze’ – a seemingly endless series of financial and personal scandals. The Labour victory in May 1997 was no surprise, (although the size of their majority, over 100, was unexpected). The Conservative party now experienced a taste of the political wilderness. Wracked by in-fighting and seemingly unable to produce a coherent strategy, it was in little better shape after another crushing defeat at the most recent poll in 2001. Although the Blair government has run into some difficulties it has been sustained by a steady economic performance. Progress on the main domestic policies emphasised by the leadership, health and education, has been patchy. The Government’s failure to tackle the historic legacy of neglect and under-investment in public services (especially transport, dismissed by Blair in 1997 as ‘not a priority’) is now becoming a serious problem. And, in an ironic reflection of its Conservative predecessor, the Blair government has been dogged by a series of financial scandals involving donations by tycoons to the Labour party in exchange for favourable policy decisions. The most important economic decision facing the government – whether or not to join the ‘eurozone’, which has now been in operation throughout most of the EU for four years – has been consistently ducked by the Blair government. The country is deeply split over the issue: the government appears, on balance, to favour entry, but is unwilling to risk the probable electoral fall-out. Among its principal achievements has been the introduction of a working system of devolution for Wales and Scotland, which now have their own assemblies for a wide range of domestic powers, and the continued functioning (broadly speaking) of the Northern Ireland peace process. By the beginning of 2003 it was, perhaps surprisingly, the foreign policy arena that was causing the greatest problems for the government. Despite their ideological differences, the British have allied themselves firmly to the US strategy of seeking a means to dispose once and for all of the Iraqi regime of Saddam Hussein. By the end of February 2003, it was all but certain that tens of thousands of British troops would be committed to the operation along with even larger numbers of Americans. Again, the nation is divided: the strength of opposition has been evident from the largest demonstrations ever seen in Britain, but the government appears determined to follow the war path, judging – maybe correctly – that once British forces are in action, the nation will rally behind them. The problems are likely to begin later on when, assuming the overthrow of Saddam, a new government will have to be constructed. Government: The United Kingdom is an hereditary monarchy, with real power being held by the Prime Minister, who is the leader of the largest parliamentary party and the head of the Cabinet. The two main political parties are the Conservatives (Tories) and Labour, although a centre party (the Liberal-SDP Alliance, later merged as the Liberal Democrats) threatened to disturb this old balance in the mid-1980s. None of the major British parties holds seats in Northern Ireland, where the political map is carved up between Unionist and Nationalist parties Scotland and Wales return a handful of Nationalist MPs. The absence of proportional representation in parliamentary elections does not encourage the prosperity of smaller parties in Britain. Elections must be held every five years, though the timing is at the discretion of the Prime Minister. The legislature is bicameral; the House of Commons is elected, while the House of Lords is a peculiar mixture of appointed members, judges, bishops and hereditary peers. Britain is almost unique in the world in having no written constitution, and the political and administrative machine is powered by a mixture of common and statute law, judicial decisions and archaic convention; the royal assent to an Act of Parliament, for instance, is still proclaimed in Norman French. Copyright © 2003 Columbus Publishing Ltd.