Ghana Overview Country Overview Ghana is situated in West Africa and is bounded by Burkina Faso, Togo, the Atlantic Ocean and Côte d’Ivoire. A narrow grassy plain stretches inland from the coast, widening in the east, while the south and west are covered by dense rainforest. To the north are forested hills beyond which is dry savannah and open woodland. Ghana’s coastline is dotted with sandy palm-fringed beaches and lagoons. The capital, Accra, features the Makola Market, a large and busy open-air market. Kumasi is the historic capital of the Ashanti civilisation, where ruins of the Manhyia Palace and the Royal Mausoleum burnt down by Lord Baden-Powell may be examined. In the northeast, the Boufom Wildlife Sanctuary contains the spectacular Banfabiri Falls. Mole National Park is recommended. Species of antelope, monkeys, lions and elephants can all be seen on guided excursions. Local dishes include traditional soups (palmnut, groundnut), Kontomere and Okro stews that are normally accompanied by fufu (pounded cassava), kenkey or gari. In Accra and other major centres there are nightclubs combining a selection of Western pop music and spectacular Ghanaian music and dancing. General Information Area: 238,537 sq km (92,100 sq miles). Population: 19,894,014 (2001). Population Density: 83.4 per sq km. Capital: Accra. Population: 1,000,000 (1995). GEOGRAPHY: Ghana is situated in West Africa and is a rectangular-shaped country bounded to the north by Burkina Faso, the east by Togo, the south by the Atlantic Ocean and the west by Côte d’Ivoire. A narrow grassy plain stretches inland from the coast, widening in the east, while the south and west are covered by dense rainforest. To the north are forested hills beyond which is dry savannah and open woodland. In the far north is a plateau averaging 500m (1600ft) in height. In the east the Akuapim Togo hills run inland from the coast along the Togo border. The Black and White Volta rivers enter Ghana from Burkina Faso merging into the largest man-made lake in the world, Lake Volta. Ghana’s coastline is dotted with sandy palm-fringed beaches and lagoons. Government: Republic. Gained independence from the UK in 1957. Head of State: President John Agyekum Kufuor since 2001. Language: The official language is English. Local Ghanaian languages are widely spoken, including Twi, Fante, Ga and Ewe. Religion: Christian, Muslim and traditional beliefs. All forms of religion have a strong influence on Ghanaian life. Time: GMT. Electricity: 220 volts AC, 50Hz; usually three-pin plugs. Single phase three-pin plugs are used in larger buildings. Older buildings have two-pin plugs. Light bulbs are of the bayonet type. Communications:   Telephone IDD service is available in most parts of the country. Country code: 233. Outgoing international code: 00. Mobile telephone GSM 900 network. Coverage is patchy. Operators include Ghana Telecommunications Company Ltd (website: www.ghanatel.net), Spacefon (website: www.spacefon.com) and Milicom Ghana Ltd. Fax There is a 24-hour fax service in Accra. Internet ISPs include Ghana.com (website: www.ghana.com). Telegram Services are available from Ghana Telecom, High Street, Accra and Stewart Avenue, Kumasi. There are three charge rates. Post Airmail letters to Europe may take two weeks or more to arrive. Press Daily newspapers are in English and include The Ghanaian Times, Daily Graphic, Business Weekly, The Mirror, Weekly Spectator and The Pioneer. BBC World Service and Voice of America frequencies: From time to time these change. BBC (website: www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice): MHz 17.83 15.40 11.77 7.160 Voice of America (website: www.voa.gov): MHz 15.58 11.98 6.035 0.909 Passport/Visa   Passport Required? Visa Required? Return Ticket Required? British Yes Yes Yes Australian Yes Yes Yes Canadian Yes Yes Yes USA Yes Yes Yes OtherEU Yes Yes Yes Japanese Yes Yes Yes PASSPORTS: Passport valid for three months required by all except: (a) Nationals of ECOWAS countries who will be allowed entry with a valid travel certificate. VISAS: Required by all except the following for stays of up to three months: (a) nationals of Benin, Burkina Faso, Cape Verde, Côte d’Ivoire, Egypt, Gambia, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Kenya, Liberia, Malawi, Mali, Malaysia, Mauritania, Mauritius, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Singapore, Togo and Zimbabwe. (b) nationals of China for stays of up to two months provided holding Hong Kong (SAR), China passports. Types of visa and cost: Tourist/Business: £30 (single-entry). £40 (multiple-entry; six months); £60 (multiple-entry; one year); £70 (multiple-entry; two years). Transit: (if continuing onward journey within 24 hours and not leaving the airport) £10. Validity: Valid for three months from the date of issue. However, length of stay is at the discretion of airport officials and only one month is guaranteed. Visas may be extended when in Ghana. Application to: Consulate (or Consular section at Embassy or High Commission); see Contact Addresses section for details. Application requirements: (a) Valid passport. (b) Completed entry permit application form (this must be copied four times if downloaded from the Internet). (c) Four passport-size photos. (d) Registered or recorded self-addressed envelope. (e) Fee (payable by cash, postal order or bankers draft made payable to the High Commission). Business: (a)-(e) and, (f) Evidence of return ticket and/or a letter of guarantee from a company in support of the application (the letter should explain the nature of business the applicant will be conducting in Ghana). Working days required: Four for personal, 14 for postal applications. Temporary residence: Application with sufficient notice to be made to High Commission or Embassy. Money Currency: Cedi (¢) = 100 pesewas. Notes are in denominations of ¢5000, 2000, 1000, 500, 200, 100, 50, 20 and 10. Coins are in denominations of 50, 20, 10, 5, 1 and 0.5 pesawas. Currency exchange: The exchange rate system has been liberalised and foreign currency is freely available through authorised dealers including banks and Forex Bureaux. Cash is exchanged at a more preferential rate than are travellers cheques. Credit & debit cards: Credit cards are accepted by leading hotels, restaurants, banks and businesses. Check with your credit or debit card company for details of merchant acceptability and other services which may be available. Travellers cheques: To avoid additional exchange rate charges, travellers are advised to take travellers cheques in US Dollars or Pounds Sterling. Currency restrictions: The import of local currency is limited to amounts which have previously been permitted to be taken out of the country. Unused local currency can be re-exchanged on proof of authorised exchange, and visitors are advised to retain all currency exchange receipts. The export of local currency is limited to ¢5000. The import of foreign currency is unlimited, subject to declaration (on exchange control form T5 which must be retained to record transactions). The export of foreign currency is limited to US$5000. Exchange rate indicators The following figures are included as a guide to the movements of the Cedi against Sterling and the US Dollar: Date May ’02 Aug ’02 Nov ’02 Feb ’03 £1.00= 11403.4 12661.5 13047.3 13279.4 $1.00= 7825.00 8325.00 8250.50 8340.00 Banking hours: Mon-Thurs 0830-1400, Fri 0830-1500. Duty Free The following goods may be imported into Ghana by persons aged 16 and over without incurring customs duty: 400 cigarettes or 100 cigars or 454g of tobacco; 750ml of spirits or 750ml of wine; 227ml of perfume. Note: Duty must be paid on gifts. Restricted items: Animals, firearms, ammunition and explosives. Public Holidays Jan 1 2003 New Year’s Day. Feb 12 Eid al-Adha (Feast of the Sacrifice). Mar 6 Independence Day. Apr 18 Good Friday. Apr 21 Easter Monday. May 1 Labour Day. Jun 4 Anniversary of the 1979 Coup. Jul 1 Republic Day. Nov 26-28 Eid al-Fitr (End of Ramadan). Dec 6 National Farmers’ Day. Dec 25-26 Christmas. Dec 31 Revolution Day. Jan 1 2004 New Year’s Day. Feb 2 Eid al-Adha (Feast of the Sacrifice). Mar 6 Independence Day. Apr 9 Good Friday. Apr 12 Easter Monday. May 1 Labour Day. Jun 4 Anniversary of the 1979 Coup. Jul 1 Republic Day. Nov 14-16 Eid al-Fitr (End of Ramadan). Dec 6 National Farmers’ Day. Dec 25-26 Christmas. Dec 31 Revolution Day. Health   Special Precautions Certificate Required Yellow Fever Yes 1 Cholera Yes 2 Typhoid and Polio 3 N/A Malaria 4 N/A 1: A yellow fever vaccination certificate is required by all nationals entering the country. 2: Following WHO guidelines issued in 1973, a cholera vaccination certificate is no longer a condition of entry to Ghana. However, cholera is a serious risk in this country and precautions are essential. Up-to-date advice should be sought before deciding whether these precautions should include vaccination as medical opinion is divided over its effectiveness. See the Health appendix. 3: Immunisation against typhoid is usually advised. 4: Malaria risk, predominantly in the malignant falciparum form, exists all year throughout the country. Resistance to chloroquine is reported. Food & drink: Tap water in cities is safe to drink, according to the Ghanaian High Commission in London. Other water sources should be regarded as being potentially contaminated, and water used for drinking, brushing teeth or making ice should have first been boiled or otherwise sterilised. Milk is unpasteurised and should be boiled. Powdered or tinned milk is available and is advised, but make sure that it is reconstituted with pure water. Avoid dairy products which are likely to have been made from unboiled milk. Only eat well cooked meat and fish, preferably served hot. Pork, salad and mayonnaise may carry increased risk. Vegetables should be cooked and fruit peeled. Other risks: Diarrhoeal diseases, including giardiasis, and typhoid fevers are common. Bilharzia (schistosomiasis) is present. Avoid swimming and paddling in fresh water. Swimming pools that are well chlorinated and maintained are safe. Hepatitis A and E are widespread. Hepatitis B is endemic. Epidemics of meningococcal disease may occur throughout tropical Africa, particularly in the savannah areas and during the dry season. Immunisation against diphtheria is sometimes recommended. Rabies is present. For those at high risk, vaccination before arrival should be considered. If you are bitten, seek medical advice without delay. For more information consult the Health appendix. Health care: Health insurance is advised. Medical facilities exist in all the regional capitals as well as in most towns and villages. Travel - International AIR: Ghana’s national airline is Ghana Airways (GH). It provides flights from Accra to London and New York three times a week. Other airlines serving Ghana include Alitalia, British Airways, KLM, Lufthansa, Northwest Airlines, Swiss, South African Airways and United Airlines. Approximate flight times: From London to Accra is 6 hours 30 minutes (direct) or 8 hours 25 minutes (with stopover in Kano). From New York is 9 hours 30 minutes (direct). International airports: Accra (ACC) (Kotoka), 10km (6 miles) north of Accra (travel time – 20 minutes). Taxis to the city are available. Airport facilities include banks/bureaux de change, car hire, duty-free shops, restaurants and tourist information. Departure Tax: US$20. SEA: Ghana has two deep-water ports, one at Takoradi, the other at Tema. Ships run between Tema and Nigeria, Côte d'Ivoire, Cameroon and South Africa. ROAD: A coast road links Lagos (Nigeria), Cotonou (Benin) and Lomé (Togo) to Accra. The best internal road from Abidjan (Côte d’Ivoire) runs inland through Kumasi. The main north-south route is also in good condition. Buses and Taxis run between Burkina Faso, Côte d’Ivoire, Togo and Ghana. The road from Burkina Faso crosses the border at Navrongo. Long-distance taxis operate between Ghana and neighbouring countries. See below for information on documentation. Travel - Internal AIR: Ghana Airways also provides a domestic service between Accra, Kumasi and Tamale. Departure tax: ¢1000. LAKE: A lake steamer runs regularly across Lake Volta between Akosombo and Yeji. Ferries connect at Yeji for Buipe and Makongo. RAIL: The rail network is limited to a 1000km (600-mile) loop by the coast connecting the cities Accra, Takoradi and Kumasi and several intervening towns. Trains run at least twice a day on all three legs of this triangle. There are two classes of ticket. Passenger cars are not air conditioned. Children under three years of age travel free. Half-fare is charged for children aged three to 11. ROAD: There are 38,940km (24,196 miles) of roads, generally in good condition although the stretch between Kamasi and Tamale may be prone to pot-holes. Traffic drives on the right. Car hire: Available but extremely expensive, with or without driver. Coach: State-run and private coach services connect all major towns. Documentation: An International Driving Permit is recommended, although it is not legally required. A British driving licence is valid for 90 days. URBAN: Roads in the major towns have undergone massive renovation to improve traffic flow. Accra has extensive bus and taxi services operated by the private sector. There are over 300,000 conventional taxis. Drivers do not generally expect tips. Other ways of getting around, for the more adventurous traveller, are tro-tros (minibuses) and mammy wagons (converted pick-up trucks). Accommodation HOTELS: There are a few international chain hotels in Ghana, all located in the capital. In addition to these there are international-standard hotels, hostels and guest-houses throughout the country although they are mainly concentrated in the urban centres. Budget accommodation is available at university campuses in Accra, Cape Coast and Kumasi during the student holidays (Christmas, Easter and summer; June-September). Grading: Hotels, hostels and guest-houses are star-graded and licensed by the Ghana Tourist Board. CAMPING: Camping in national parks is possible, but only for the very adventurous, as it can be dangerous. In game reserves visitors must be accompanied by an armed guide. BEACH HUTS: Ghana offers some basic beach hut accommodation, made from local materials, in popular beach resorts. For a list of such accommodation contact Ghana Tourist Board (see Contact Addresses section) or contact Ghanaweb (website: www.ghanaweb.com). Introduction Ghana is divided into ten regions but for the purpose of this guide, the country has been split into four regions. This does not necessarily reflect administrative or tribal boundaries. For further details of tours within Ghana, contact the Ghana Tourist Board (see Contact Addresses section). Greater Accra Region Accra: The National Museum has a large collection of Ghanaian art. The Makola Market, a large and busy open-air market, is located on Kojo Thompson Road. Traders from surrounding villages bring their wares every day. The Centre for National Culture is an arts centre and crafts market, where crafts, kente and other traditional cloths can be purchased. The Kwame Nkrumah Mausoleum, on the High Street, is a magnificent monument to the first President of Ghana. The National Theatre is a Chinese showpiece and the venue for musical shows, plays, dances and conferences. Aburi: Located 38km (24 miles) to the north of Accra, Aburi is in the Akwapim Hills. The Sanatorium (now a rest house), built there in the 19th century, is indicative of the refreshing climate. The Botanical Gardens, planted by British naturalists in colonial days, has a comprehensive array of subtropical plants and trees. Ada: A popular resort at the mouth of the Volta, this is where Ghanaians and tourists go for watersports. A luxury hotel has been built here. Swimming is safe in the river mouth. Anglers have the opportunity to catch barracuda and Nile perch. Nearby are the salt marshes of the Songow Lagoon, famous for their birdlife. Shai Hills Game Reserve: A comparatively small reserve some 50km (30 miles) by road from Accra. Horses may be hired here to explore the park. Central and Western Region The central region of Ghana borders the Gulf of Guinea and is home to ancient castles and forts that were often used during the slave trade as holding areas for human cargo. Cape Coast Castle, built in the 16th-century and later reconstructed and enlarged, served as the seat of British administration in the then Gold Coast until 1877 (when administration moved to Christiansborg Castle in Accra). Further west is the Castle of Elmina (‘the mine’). Elmina was the first Portuguese settlement in Ghana. This huge 15th-century fort, that largely remains intact, is the location of one of the first Catholic churches in sub-Sahara Africa. Fort St Jago was primarily used as a military base and stands on a hill commanding fabulous views of both Elmina and the Atlantic Ocean. Cultural shows are often performed at the castles and guided tours are available. Fort St Jago and Cape Coast Castle have both been declared World Heritage Monuments by UNESCO. Kakum National Park: Located 20km from Cape Coast, the park is a protected conservation area, following governmental concerns to promote eco-tourism. Wildlife that can be seen include elephants, bongo antelopes, monkeys, over 800 species of rare birds, butterflies, amphibians and reptiles. Visitors can view wildlife at tree canopy level from the 333m tree-top walkway. West Coast: There are many popular beach resorts along the western coast. At Dixcove there is a fish market and a 17th-century British fort. Nearby Busua is a tropical beach with palms and spectacular Atlantic breakers. However, as with much of the Ghanaian coast, swimming is unsafe due to the treacherous undertow of the waves. In this area there are to be found small rocky inlets which are safe for swimming. Volta and Ashanti Region The Volta region is dominated by Volta Lake, the largest man-made lake on earth. The waterway stretches for two-thirds of the length of the country. A round trip on the car ferry to Kete-Krachi takes a day; alternatively one can take the three-day trip to the northern capital of New Tamale at the head of the lake. There are facilities for sailing, water-skiing and other watersports. Ferry links across the lake now make the region more accesible (see Travel - Internal section). Akosombo, centre to the important Akosombo irrigation dam, is developing as a holiday resort, particularly for watersports. Kumasi: The historic capital of the Ashanti civilisation, where ruins of the Manhyia Palace and the Royal Mausoleum burnt down by Lord Baden-Powell may be examined. The Cultural Centre is a complex comprising a museum, library and outdoor auditorium largely devoted to the Ashanti. There is also a ‘Living Museum’, a farm and reconstituted village, where craftsmen such as potters, goldsmiths and sculptors can be seen at work using traditional methods. Of particular interest are weavers making the vividly coloured kente cloth, the ceremonial dress of the region. Owabi Wildlife Sanctuary: Located to the west, close to Kumasi. Further to the northeast is the Boufom Wildlife Sanctuary containing the spectacular Banfabiri Falls. To the south is the pleasant gold-mining city of Obuasi. Northern Region The northern region is characterised by high plains and a central plateau rising between 150-300m. West of the region’s main town, Tamale, lies Mole National Park, which is one of the best equipped nature reserves in Ghana. Visitors can go either on foot or hire a four-wheel-drive vehicle, but must always be accompanied by a guide. Routes are planned to take in species of antelope, monkeys, buffalo, warthog and, more rarely, lions and elephants, which have been introduced into the region. Unlike many African game reserves visitors are allowed to camp and explore the area at will, rather than being confined to a car on a set route. Tourist facilities exist at the entrance to the park; these include a motel with restaurant. Situated five miles north of Mole National Park, the Larabanga Mosque is well worth visiting. Built in the style of former Western Sudanese Empires, it houses a holy Koran and is believed by locals to be a ‘God-built mosque’. Sport & Activities Wildlife: Compared to other African countries, Ghana’s national parks and game reserves are small, and relatively few tourists visit them. The country’s newest national park is the Kakum Nature Reserve which, in addition to animal species such as monkeys, antelopes and water buffalo, has an aerial walkway built through the rainforest canopy offering treetop views. Guided tours leave twice daily. Safaris are available in all of Ghana’s game reserves, including the Owabi Wildlife Sanctuary, the Bia National Park, the Bui National Park and the Mole Game Reserve, all of which are also good options for hiking and exploring the savannah and rainforest. For further information, see the Resorts & Excursions section. Watersports: Although Ghana’s coast offers miles of sandy beaches, strong currents and tides can make bathing quite dangerous. Near Accra there are three swimming pools within yards of the surf. Ada, at the mouth of the River Volta, also offers safe swimming, although it is not advisable to swim upstream. Visitors should also make enquiries locally as there may be some risk of bilharzia. For those in search of sailing or water-skiing there are a number of centres with good facilities, particularly on Lake Volta, which has a yacht club at Akosombo, and at Ada. Another exhilarating experience is to be taken out over the surf in a local fishing boat. Sport fishing for barracuda is popular. The best spots for surfing are at Fete, Dixcove (both west of Accra) and Kokrobite (16km/10 miles from Accra). Other: Ghanaians are keen footballers, tennis players and boxers. Another popular sport is horseracing, which takes place at the Accra racecourse every Saturday. There are golf courses at Achimota, Accra, Tema and Kumasi. Social Profile Food & Drink: International food is available in most large hotels and many restaurants serve a range of local traditional foods. On the coast, prawns and other seafood are popular. Dishes include traditional soups (palmnut, groundnut), Kontomere and Okro (stews) accompanied by fufu (pounded cassava), kenkey or gari. In Accra there are also restaurants serving Middle Eastern, Chinese, French and other European cuisine. Local beer (which is similar to lager) and spirits are readily available. Nightlife: In Accra and other major centres there are nightclubs with Western popular music and Afro beat. Concerts can be seen at the national theatre in Accra. The School of Performing Arts, Univeristy of Ghana, Legon often hosts drama, poetry and cultural dancing shows. Foreign and Ghanaian films can be seen at the Ghana Film Theatre and Executive Film House in Accra. Shopping: Almost all commodities, including luxury items, can be found in the shops and markets. Artefacts from the Ashanti region and northern Ghana can be bought along with attractive handmade gold and silver jewellery. Modern and old African art is also available (although prices are high), in particular Ashanti stools and brass weights formerly used to measure gold. In all the northern markets, earthenware pots, leatherwork, locally woven shirts and Bolgatanga baskets woven from multi-coloured raffia are sold. Shopping hours: Mon-Tue, Thurs-Fri 0800-1200 and 1400-1730, Wed-Sat 0800-1300. Special Events: Ghanaian festivals are well worth seeing with drumming, dancing and feasting. Every part of the country has its own annual festivals for the affirmation of tribal values, the remembrance of ancestors and past leaders, and the purification of the state in preparation for another year. The following is a selection of the major festivals celebrated annually. For more information and for exact dates, contact the tourist office (see Contact Addresses section). Jan Edina Buronya (New Year), Elmina. Mar Gologo, Upper East region. Mar/Apr Ngmauen, Odumase. May Dipo, Krobo Odumase; Aboakyer, Winneba. Jul Bakatue, Elmina. Aug Asafotufiam, Ada; Dumba, Upper West region; Homowo, Accra. Sep Kobine, Upper West region; Odwira Festival, Akropong; Fetu Afahye, Elmina. Aug/Sep Ghana Flower and Garden Fair, Accra. Oct Hogbetsotso, Anloga. Social Conventions: Ghanaians should always be addressed by their formal titles unless they specifically request otherwise. Handshaking is the usual form of greeting. It is customary in much of West Africa not to use the left hand for touching food. Photography: Permission should be sought before photographing military installations, government buildings or airports. Tipping: When a service charge is not included, a ten per cent tip is usual. Business Profile Economy: Agriculture occupies most of the working population, producing both subsistence and cash crops. The most important of the latter is cocoa, of which Ghana is one of the world’s major producers. Coffee and various fruit are the other main crops. Fishing has grown in importance since the acquisition of modern vessels. The country’s main industry is mining, particularly for diamonds and gold (produced at the famous Ashanti gold field), and this is both a major employer and an important foreign currency earner. Although recent mineral exploration failed to discover anticipated oil and gas deposits, new bauxite and manganese deposits have been identified. Manufacturing is concentrated in food processing, textiles, vehicles and chemicals. The country’s energy needs are met by hydroelectric projects; these produce a surplus which Ghana sells to its neighbours. As a primary commodity producer, Ghana has suffered from consistently low world prices for its main products throughout much of the last 20 years. Since the late 1980s, Ghana has been something of a laboratory for a new regime for less developed countries devised by the International Monetary Fund and known as a Structural Adjustment programme. Customised for each state, the IMF, in conjunction with the World Bank offers steady financial support to the national exchequer in exchange for government undertakings to implement agreed economic policies. The latter are based on liberalisation of the economy, the removal of trade barriers, privatisation of state-owned assets and firm budgetary control (leading invariably to cuts in social and welfare spending). Despite the notable lack of tangible benefits to the population as a whole, the Ghana programme has been judged a qualified success and the country has since been regularly cited as a role-model for the developing world. Current growth is around four per cent. Ghana is a member of the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS). The UK, Switzerland, Nigeria, the USA, Germany, Japan and the Netherlands are Ghana’s principal trading partners. Business: Appointments are customary and visitors should always be punctual for meetings. Best time for business visits is from September to April. Office hours: Mon-Fri 0800-1200 and 1400-1700, Sat 0830-1200. Commercial Information: The following organisation can offer advice: Ghana National Chamber of Commerce, PO Box 2325, Accra (tel: (21) 662 427; fax: (21) 662 210; e-mail: gncc@ncs.com.gh; website: www.g77tin.org/gncchp.html). Climate A tropical climate, hot and humid in the north and in the forest land of Ashanti and southwest plains. There are two rainy seasons in Ghana: from March to July and from September to October. Required clothing: Tropical lightweight clothing. Sunglasses are advisable. History and Government History: Ghana, until independence from British colonial rule on 6 March 1957, was known as the Gold Coast. The country is named after one of the ancient Sudanese Empires which flourished between the fourth and tenth centuries. Subsequently, the area was divided among several kingdoms, of which the most important were the Fanti, who occupied the coastal region, and the Ashanti, whose territory was further inland. The Portuguese were the first Europeans to arrive in the late 15th century. During the next 300 years, the Gold Coast became a major trading centre, mainly in gold and slaves. All the main European colonial powers were engaged in this type of commerce. From the beginning of the 19th century, an increasingly assertive Ashanti kingdom drove out many of the European colonists. The important exception was the British who, allied with the rival Fanti kingdom, defeated the Ashanti in 1874 and took control of the whole of the Gold Coast. The Ashanti-controlled interior was subjugated over the next 15 years and converted into ‘protectorates’, locally ruled under British supervision. The colony’s lands were supplemented in 1917 by parts of neighbouring Togoland which was formerly under German control. Together, these formed what in 1957 became the independent state of Ghana – the first British territory in Africa to be decolonised. Three years after independence (1960) Ghana became a Republic with Dr Kwame Nkrumah, leader of the Convention People’s Party (CPP) as the first President. Under Dr Nkrumah, Ghana made rapid and remarkable progress in education, industrial and infrastructure development and in the provision of social services. At the same time, the country played a leading role in international affairs – especially the United Nations and Commonwealth – in the struggle for the liberation of other African countries, most of which were still under colonial rule. However, Nkrumah’s growing dictatorial tendencies at home disaffected many, especially in the armed forces, and in the end, it was they who, in February 1966, overthrew the CPP Government in a coup led by Colonel Emmanuel Kotoka. A pattern of fledgling civilian governments aborted by the intervention of the armed forces has dogged Ghana for much of the time since then. The leading figure in recent Ghanaian politics is Jerry John Rawlings, a former Air Force Flight Lieutenant, who first came to prominence as the leader of coups in 1979 and 1981. Rawlings initially promoted radical socialist economic and social policies but, as Ghana’s fiscal problems worsened during the 1980s, the Government was forced to turn to the IMF (see Economy section). After introducing a new constitution, President Rawlings and the ruling party, the National Democratic Congress (NDC), submitted themselves to the verdict of the electorate in 1992, and won both the presidency and a huge majority of legislature seats, although most opposition parties boycotted the election claiming widespread irregularities. In July, under the supervision of the IMF and World Bank, the new Government undertook the introduction of a series of economic reforms which became the model for the IMF’s Structural Adjustment Programmes for developing nations. Ghana entered a welcome period of political and economic stability. In the presidential election of December 1996, Rawlings was again elected. The main domestic problem throughout the 1990s was repeated bouts of inter-communal violence caused by ethnic rivalries and disputes over land ownership: these were smartly suppressed by the Government. Also, as Rawlings’ second four-year term of office drew to a close, the Government became afflicted by growing mismanagement and corruption. In December 2000, a closely fought election pitted Rawlings’ former deputy John Atta Mills against John Kuffour, leader of the main opposition New Patriotic Party (NPP) and several minor candidates. The contest was dubbed ‘the battle of the bores’, acknowledging the failure of either main candidate to match the charisma of the outgoing Rawlings. However, charisma is not an essential qualification for governing a country and Kuffour won the run-off against Mills and took office at the beginning of 2001. The NPP also became the largest party in the Ghanaian Parliament. With most of the senior echelons of the Government and security forces occupied by long-term Rawlings loyalists, Kuffour was obliged to move cautiously to tackle the country’s problems. While making some progress on the economic front, outbreaks of tribal violence in the north of the country and other problems have brought Kuffour’s honeymoon to an end. Government: Under the provisions of a new constitution accepted by referendum in April 1992, the President and a new National Assembly are elected by universal suffrage. The President can be elected for a maximum of two four-year terms. The unicameral legislature, the National Assembly, has 200 seats and is also elected for four years. Copyright © 2003 Columbus Publishing Ltd.