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Iran [Islamic Republic of]
Overview
Country Overview
Iran is located in the Middle East, bounded by Turkmenistan and the Caspian Sea, Afghanistan, Pakistan, the Persian Gulf, the Gulf of Oman, Iraq and Turkey. The centre and east of the country is largely barren desert with mountainous regions in the west.
Tehran, the capital, is essentially a modern city, but the best of the old has been preserved. The Shahid Motahari Mosque has eight minarets, from which the city can be viewed. The Bazaar is one of the world's largest. More traditional towns, such as Rey, Varamin, Qazvin and Shemshak are within easy reach of Tehran.
The town of Tabriz is known for its restored blue mosque built in 1465. The covered Qaisariyeh Bazaar dates back to the 15th century.
The Golden Triangle is the name popularly given to the region enclosed by the ancient cities of Hamadan, Kermanshahan and Khorrambabad. For many centuries the Silk Road passed through the pleasant rolling countryside of the region.
Local dishes include chelo khoresh (rice topped with vegetables and meat in a nut sauce) and morgh polo (chicken and pilau rice).
General Information
Area: 1,648,000 sq km (636,296 sq miles).
Population: 62,746,000 (1999).
Population Density: 38.1 per sq km.
Capital: Tehran. Population: 6,758,845 (1996).
GEOGRAPHY: Iran is located in the Middle East, bounded to the north by Turkmenistan and the Caspian Sea, the east by Afghanistan and Pakistan, the south by the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman, and the west by Iraq and Turkey. The centre and east of the country are largely barren undulating desert, punctured by qanats (irrigation canals) and green oases, but there are mountainous regions in the west along the Turkish and Iraqi borders and in the north where the Elburz Mountains rise steeply from a fertile belt around the Caspian Sea.
Government: Islamic Republic since 1979. Head of State: Supreme Leader (Rahbar-e Moazam) Ayatollah Ali Khameni since 1989. Head of Government: President Muhammad Khatami since 2001.
Language: Persian (Farsi) is the most widely spoken language. Arabic is spoken in Khuzestan in the southwest, and Turkish in the northwest around Tabriz. English, French and (to a lesser extent) German are spoken by many businessmen and officials.
Religion: Predominantly Islamic; mostly Shi’ite, with a minority of Sunnis. The 1976 census recorded 300,000 Christians, 80,000 Jews and 30,000 Zoroastrians.
Time: GMT + 3.5 (GMT + 4.5 from 20 March to 21 September).
Electricity: 220 volts AC, 50Hz. Plugs are of the round two-pin type.
Communications:
Telephone
IDD service available. Country code: 98. Outgoing international code: 00. Telephone booths are yellow.
Mobile telephone
GSM 900 network. Main network operators include Payam Kish (website: www.payamkish.com) and TCI (website: www.iran-telecom.com).
Fax/telegram
Facilities are available at main post offices. There are three charge bands. There are also fax facilities at the major hotels.
Internet
ISPs include Tehran Web (website: www.mz3.com) and Pishgaman Kavir Yazd (website: www.yazd.co.ir). There are Internet cafes in Teheran and other cities.
Post
Airmail to Western Europe can take at least two weeks. There are ten main Post offices in Tehran. Post boxes are yellow. Stamps can be bought at some cigarette kiosks. Post office hours: Generally Sat-Thurs 0730-1500, but some main post offices stay open until 2100.
Press
The main English-language papers are the Tehran Times, Kayhan International and Iran News.
BBC World Service and Voice of America frequencies: From time to time these change.
BBC (website: www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice):
Voice of America (website: www.voa.gov):
Passport/Visa
| | Passport Required? | Visa Required? | Return Ticket Required? | | British | Yes | Yes | No | | Australian | Yes | Yes | No | | Canadian | Yes | Yes | No | | USA | Yes | Yes | No | | OtherEU | Yes | Yes | No | | Japanese | Yes | Yes | No |
Restricted entry: Nationals of Israel or holders of passports containing a visa for Israel (either valid or expired) will be refused entry under all circumstances. Women judged to be dressed immodestly will be refused entry.
PASSPORTS: Passport valid for six months beyond stay required by all.
VISAS: Required by all except the following:
(a) nationals of Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia and Turkey for stays of up to three months;
(b) nationals of Malaysia and Singapore may obtain a visa on arrival, free of charge, for stays of up to two weeks;
(c) transit passengers continuing their journey within 12 hours provided holding valid onward or return documentation and not leaving the airport. Transit passengers continuing their journey within 48 hours (under the above conditions) can obtain a transit visa on arrival against a fee of US$40.
Types of visa and cost: Tourist/Business: £43 (single-entry); £58 (multiple-entry). Transit: £36. The above prices are for UK nationals; fees vary according to nationality of applicant.
Validity: Tourist, Business and Pilgrimage visas are issued for stays of up to one month and are valid for three months from date of authorisation. Transit visas are valid for five days. Applications for renewal or extension should be made to the Iranian Embassy.
Application to: Consulate (or Consular section at Embassy); see Contact Addresses section for details.
Application requirements: (a) Valid passport with a minimum of two blank pages to affix visa. (b) Two application forms. (c) Two passport-size photos (women should be photographed wearing the hejab – Islamic head dress). (d) Stamped, self-addressed envelope, if passport sent by post. (e) Proof of fee payment (payable by postal order or banker’s draft to the ‘Embassy of the Islamic Republic of Iran’ or by direct payment into the Embassy bank account at Melli bank, 98A Kensington High Street, London W8 4SG, UK or by credit card – form to be filled in and sent with application). Pilgrimage. (a)-(e) and, (f) Letter of introduction signed by the Head of an Islamic Centre. Business visas: (a)-(e) and, (f) Letter of invitation from the sponsoring company in Iran (which will then be presented to the Iranian Ministry of Foreign Affairs for authorisation).
Working days required: A minimum of four weeks but can take up to two months. A Pilgrimage visa may take only two weeks to process.
Temporary residence: All visitors wishing to stay for more than three months must obtain a residence permit. Application must be made within eight days of arrival to Police Headquarters or the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in Tehran.
Money
Currency: Iranian Rial (IR) = 100 dinars. Notes are in denominations of IR10,000, 5000, 2000 and 1000. Coins are in denominations of IR250, 100, 50, 20, 10 and 5.
Currency exchange: It is advisable to bring hard currency for exchange purposes.
Credit & debit cards: Mastercard is accepted. Be aware, however, that if the card was issued in the USA, it may not be useable due to the US trade embargo.
Travellers cheques: Can be exchanged in major cities. However, US Dollars are not accepted.
Currency restrictions: The import and export of local currency is limited to IR2000. Any amount larger than this requires authorisation from the Central Bank. The import of foreign currency is unlimited provided declared on arrival (there is a special form). The export of foreign currency is limited to the amount declared on arrival.
Exchange rate indicators
The following figures are included as a guide to the movements of the Iranian Rial against Sterling and the US Dollar:
| Date | May ’02 | Aug ’02 | Nov ’02 | Feb ’03 | | £1.00= | 2550.27 | 2661.58 | 12630.6 | 12707.7 | | $1.00= | 1750.00 | 1750.00 | 7987.00 | 7981.00 |
Banking hours: Sat-Wed 0800-1600; some branches are open 0800-2000. Most banks are closed Thurs-Fri.
Duty Free
The following goods may be imported into Iran without incurring customs duty:
200 cigarettes; a reasonable quantity of perfume for personal use; gifts on which the import duty/tax does not exceed IR11,150.
Prohibited items: Alcoholic beverages, narcotics, guns and ammunition, all horticultural and agricultural goods including seeds and soil; aerial photo cameras, transmitter receiver apparatus, pornography, most films, cassettes, CDs and videos, any kind of fashion magazine. Penalties for being in possession of narcotics are very severe.
Restricted items: Export of antiques, gold, silver and jewellery. Travellers may export only one hand-woven carpet or two rugs (total area not exceeding 12 sq metres).
Note: Certain high-value items will be entered in travellers’ passports by Customs officials on arrival. These items may not be sold, and must be presented to Customs on departure. If travellers are intending to visit Iran again on the same passport, they should ensure that these items are cancelled by Customs officials when they leave Iran.
Public Holidays
Jan 14 2003 Birthday of Imam Reza. Feb 11 Victory of the 1979 Islamic Revolution. Feb 12 Eid al-Adha (Feast of the Sacrifice). Mar 5 Islamic New Year. Mar 13 Tassou’a. Mar 14 Ashoura. Mar 20 Oil Nationalisation Day. Mar 21-25 Nowrooz (Iranian New Year). Apr 1 Islamic Republic Day. Apr 2 Sizdah-Bedar (Public Outing Day to end Now Rooz). Apr 23 Arba’in-e Hosseini. May 1 Death of the Prophet and Martyrdom of Imam Hassan. May 19 Prophet’s Birthday and Imam Sadeq. Jun 4 Death of Imam Khomeini. Jun 5 Anniversary of Uprising Against the Shah. Sep 10 Birthday of Iman Ali. Sep 24 Leilat al-Meiraj (Ascension of the Prophet). Oct 12 Birthday of Imam Mahdi. Nov 16 Martyrdom of Imam Ali. Nov 21 Quds Day. Nov 26-28 Eid al-Fitr (End of Ramadan). Dec 20 Martyrdom of Imam Sadeq. Jan 4 2004 Birthday of Imam Reza. Feb 2 Eid al-Adha (Feast of the Sacrifice). Feb 11 Victory of the 1979 Islamic Revolution. Feb 22 Islamic New Year. Mar 1 Tassou’a. Mar 2 Ashoura. Mar 20 Oil Nationalisation Day. Mar 21-25 Nowrooz (Iranian New Year). Apr 1 Islamic Republic Day. Apr 2 Sizdah-Bedar (Public Outing Day to end Now Rooz). Apr 11 Arba’in-e Hosseini. Apr 19 Death of the Prophet and Martyrdom of Imam Hassan. May 7 Prophet’s Birthday and Imam Sadeq. Jun 4 Death of Imam Khomeini. Jun 5 Anniversary of Uprising Against the Shah. Aug 29 Birthday of Iman Ali. Sep 12 Leilat al-Meiraj (Ascension of the Prophet). Sep 30 Birthday of Imam Mahdi. Nov 4 Martyrdom of Imam Ali. Nov 12 Quds Day. Nov 14-16 Eid al-Fitr (End of Ramadan). Dec 8 Martyrdom of Imam Sadeq. Dec 23 Birthday of Imam Reza.
Note: Muslim festivals are timed according to local sightings of various phases of the moon and the dates given above are approximations. During the lunar month of Ramadan that precedes Eid al-Fitr, Muslims fast during the day and feast at night and normal business patterns may be interrupted. Many restaurants are closed during the day and there may be restrictions on smoking and drinking. Some disruption may continue into Eid al-Fitr itself. Eid al-Fitr and Eid al-Adha may last anything from two to ten days, depending on the region. For more information see the World of Islam appendix.
Health
| | Special Precautions | Certificate Required | | Yellow Fever | Yes | 1 | | Cholera | 2 | No | | Typhoid and Polio | 3 | N/A | | Malaria | 4 | N/A |
1: A yellow fever vaccination certificate is required from all travellers coming from infected areas.
2: Following WHO guidelines issued in 1973, a cholera vaccination certificate is no longer a condition of entry to Iran. However, cholera is a serious risk in this country and precautions are essential. Up-to-date advice should be sought before deciding whether these precautions should include vaccination as medical opinion is divided over its effectiveness. See the Health appendix for further information.
3: Immunisation against typhoid is advised.
4: Limited malaria risk exists from March to November in rural areas of the provinces of Sistan-Baluchestan, Hormozgan and Kerman (tropical part); in some areas north of the Zagros mountains and in western and southwestern regions. Resistance to chloroquine has been reported in the malignant falciparum strain.
Food & drink: Mains water is normally chlorinated, and whilst relatively safe may cause mild abdominal upsets. Bottled water is available and is advised for the first few weeks of the stay. Pasteurised milk is available; unpasteurised milk should be boiled. Powdered or tinned milk is available and is advised, but make sure that it is reconstituted with pure water. Avoid dairy products which are likely to have been made from unboiled milk. Only eat well-cooked meat and fish, preferably served hot. Salad and mayonnaise may carry increased risk. Vegetables should be cooked and fruit peeled.
Other risks: Bilharzia (schistosomiasis) is present in southwestern Iran. Avoid swimming and paddling in stagnant water. Swimming pools which are well chlorinated and maintained are safe. Diarrhoeal diseases such as giardiasis, dysentery and typhoid fever are common. Tick-borne relapsing fever, cutaneaous leishmaniasis and hepatitis A and B occur. Trachoma is reported to be common. Rabies is present. For those at high risk, vaccination before arrival should be considered. If you are bitten, seek medical advice without delay. For more information, consult the Health appendix.
Health care: Health facilities are limited outside Tehran. Medical insurance is essential.
Travel - International
Note: Visitors should keep informed as to developments in Iraq, and remain aware of the worldwide terrorist threat to westerners. For further advice they should contact their local government travel advice department.
AIR: Iran’s national airline is Iran Air (IR), which operates three direct flights per week to Tehran from London (Heathrow). British Mediterranean (a franchise partner of British Airways) operates four services a week from London to Tehran. Other airlines serving Iran include KLM, Lufthansa, Emirates, Gulf Air and Swiss.
Approximate flight times: From Tehran to London is six hours.
International airports: Tehran (THR) (Mehrabad) is 5km (3 miles) west of the city. Airline buses are available to the city (travel time – 45 minutes) for approximately IR100. Taxis are also available to the city centre for approximately IR10,000 (travel time – 30 minutes). Airport facilities include a 24-hour bank, 24-hour post office, 24-hour restaurants, snack bar, 24-hour duty-free shop, gift shops, 24-hour tourist information and first aid/vaccination facilities.
Departure tax: IR70,000.
SEA: The main port was Khorramshahr until its destruction during the war with Iraq. It is being reconstructed now. The ports of Abbas and Bushehr are to be found in the Persian Gulf and Nowshahr and Anzelli on the Caspian Sea. P&O Ferries connects Iranian ports with Persian Gulf States and Karachi.
RAIL: RAJA Trains (part of Iranian Islamic Republic Railways) operates passenger services from Tehran to Isanbul (Turkey) and Damascus (Syrian Arab Republic); from Tabiz to Djolfa (for the CIS) and Van (Turkey); and from Zahedan to Quetta (Pakistan). The Qom-Zahedan Line, when completed, will link Europe with India. Contact RAJA Trains (c/o Iranian Islamic Republic Railways) (e-mail: info@rajatrains.com; website: www.irirw.com) for details.
ROAD: No reliable international through road links. There are various routes possible from Turkey and Pakistan, but these are not recommended. Cars can also be put on boats at Venice or Brindisi and picked up at Ezmir. For details of political conditions governing access, contact the Embassy.
Travel - Internal
AIR: Iran Air runs services to Tehran, Tabriz, Esfahan, Shiraz, Mashhad, Ahwaz, Kish, Zahedan and other major cities. Aseman Air also runs services to the major cities. The vast size of Iran makes internal flights the most practical method of transport.
RAIL: RAJA Trains run a fairly comprehensive internal rail network. Major intercity trains oeprate on five main regional routes; Azarbaijan route (Tehran – Jolfa); Golestan route (Tehran – Gorgan); Hormozgan route (Tehran – Bandar-e-Abbas); Khorasan route (Tehran – Mashhad) and Khozetan route (Tehran – Khorramshahr). There are many areas in the mountains and the desert which can only be reached by rail. There are some air-conditioned trains, and sleeping and dining cars on many trains. For further details contact RAJA Trains (c/o Iranian Islamic Republic Railways) (see Travel – International section) for details.
ROAD: The road network is extensive, with more than 51,300km (31,800 miles) of paved roads and 490km (304 miles) of motorways, but the quality is unreliable. The two main roads, the A1 and A2 (not wholly completed as yet), link the Iraqi and Pakistani borders and the Afghan and Turkish borders. Traffic drives on the right. Bus: Widespread, cheap and comfortable, although services tend to be erratic. Taxi: Available in all cities. The urban taxis (orange or blue) will carry several passengers at a time and are much cheaper than the private taxis which only carry one person. Unofficial taxis should be avoided; use only legitimate taxis or those ordered through legitimate agencies. Group taxis for up to ten people are available for intercity travel. Prices are negotiated beforehand and tipping is not necessary. Car hire: Available in most cities and from airports. Documentation: An International Driving Permit is recommended but it is not a legal requirement. Personal insurance is required. All motorists entering Iran must possess a Carnet de Passage en Douane and an International Certificate of Vehicle ownership.
URBAN: Tehran has an extensive bus system, including double-deckers. Tickets are bought in advance at kiosks.
TRAVEL TIMES: The following chart gives approximate travel times (in hours and minutes) from Tehran to other major cities/towns in Iran.
| | Air | Road | Rail |
| Ahvaz | 1.30 | 17.00 | 19.00 |
| B. Abbas | 1.55 | 28.00 | - |
| Esfahan | 1.00 | 8.00 | 9.00 |
| Kerman | 1.30 | 20.00 | 18.00 |
| Mashhad | 1.30 | 14.00 | 15.00 |
| Shiraz | 1.30 | 15.00 | - |
| Tabriz | 1.20 | 12.00 | 11.00 |
Accommodation
HOTELS: A number of hotels are available and there is a fair range of accommodation. Student accommodation is available in small hotels. Schools and private houses also offer accommodation. For more information contact the Iran Tourist Company or the Iran Touring and Tourism Organisation (ITTO) (see Contact Addresses section).
CAMPING/CARAVANNING: There are limited camping facilities and off-site camping is discouraged. Registration with the police is required if camping.
Introduction
TEHRAN: The capital is essentially a modern city, but the best of the old has been preserved. The Shahid Motahari Mosque has eight minarets, from which the city can be viewed. The Bazaar (open every day except Friday and religious holidays) is one of the world’s largest; another bazaar, catering mainly for local communities, can be found in the Tajrish suburb. Located in the north of the capital, an endless maze of vaulted alleys, everything from fine carpets to silver- and copperware to exotic aromatic spices can be found here. There is a separate section for each trade practised and craftsmen can be seen at their work.
Tehran has several good museums, including the Abgineh Museum of Iranian Pottery; the Rea Abbasi Muesum (housing a rare collection of Iranian calligraphy and paintings); the National Museum of Iran (Iran Bastan Museum) (which displays mostly archaeological and anthropological exhibits); the Rassam Cultural and Art Foundation of Carpet (which includes a carpet museum and carpet weaving school); the Carpet Museum (whose oldest carpet is 450 years old); and the Anthropological Museums in Golestan Place and Saad Abad. Iran’s capital also has a number of cultural centres (including Bahman, Khavaran and Azadi) as well as a National Library, a City Theatre, a Zoo and a University.
EXCURSIONS: The Alborz mountain chain is a popular destination for excursions from Tehran. There are numerous mountain resorts offering cable car facilities as well as skiing slopes (the season running from January to March). Within easy reach of Tehran are the towns of Rey, Varamin, Qazvin and Shemshak, which have preserved much of their original character.
NORTHWESTERN IRAN: The country’s second-largest city, Tabriz, has a ruined but restored fine blue mosque built in 1465. The covered Qaisariyeh Bazaar dates back to the 15th century. About 22km (14 miles) from the salt lake is the town of Uromieh, which claims to be the birthplace of Zoroaster. Other towns worth visiting include Ardabil, Astara, Bandar-e Anzali and Rasht.
THE GOLDEN TRIANGLE: The Golden Triangle is the name popularly given to the region enclosed by the ancient cities of Hamadan, Kermanshah and Khorramabad. This is a part of Iran which is particularly rich in historical associations; for many centuries the Silk Road passed through the pleasant rolling countryside of the region, and there are several indications of settlements dating back over 6000 years. Hamadan was the summer capital of the Persian Emperors, although one of the few easily visible signs of the city’s antiquity is the Stone Lion, dating back to the time of Alexander the Great. Kermanshah is a good base for visiting the Taghe Bostan Grottoes, which have several excellent bas-relief carvings. The site of the Seleucid Temple of Artemis is in Kangavar; it consists of massive fallen columns and is now being reconstructed.
ESFAHAN: Esfahan is the former capital of Persia and has been designated by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site. The city’s most remarkable feature is its magnificent central square which is roughly seven times larger than San Marco in Venice. The mosques, palaces, bridges and gardens also deserve a visit. The Friday Mosque (Masjid-e Jomeh) is one of Iran’s finest buildings. The Shaikh Lotfullah Mosque is famous for the stalactite effect of its northern entrance. There are also several good bazaars.
ELSEWHERE: Shiraz is the capital of the Fars Province, and another of the country’s ancient cities. Several of the buildings date back to the ninth century, and there are many excellent parks and gardens. About 50km (30 miles) away is Persepolis, also on the UNESCO World Heritage list, and famous for the Ceremonial Seat of Darius, built on an enormous platform carved out of the Kuhe Rahmat. Another UNESCO-listed archaeological site can be found at Changha Zanbil, 40km (25 miles) south-east of Susa.
Khorasan is a large province in the east where a great revival of learning occurred in the early Middle Ages. Mashhad, a former trading post on the Silk Road, is the capital of the region.
The city of Kerman in the southern desert region has several stunning mosques and a ruined citadel, although visitors are advised to exercise caution and only travel on tours organised through Iranian government-approved tourist organisations.
Sport & Activities
Watersports: Water-skiing facilities are available at the Karadj Dam near Tehran. Hotel swimming pools are open to non-residents and an entrance fee is charged. Fishing: Many streams are well stocked with trout including the Djaje-Rud, the Karadje and the Lar. The dammed lakes of the Karadje River and the Sefid Rud are also filled with fish. The Caspian Sea is another good choice, with large numbers of bream, mullet, salmon and sturgeon.
Wintersports: The skiing season is from January to March in the Alborz Mountains. Resorts include Abe Ali, 62km (38 miles) east of Tehran; the Noor Slope, 71km (44 miles) from the capital; Shemshak, 59km (37 miles) from Tehran, and Dizine near the town of Gatchsar. Equipment for hire and all the usual winter sports facilities are available.
Other: Horseracing meetings are held at the Park-e-Mellat, Tehran. Polo matches are played at the polo grounds on the Karadj road out of Tehran. Iran Air operate trekking and climbing package holidays, which can be booked at any of their offices throughout the world. Some hotels have tennis courts and instruction is available at the Amjadieh Sports Centre in Tehran. There are several horseriding clubs, particularly in Tehran. There is an 18-hole golf course in Tehran affiliated to the Hilton Hotel on Valiye Asr Avenue.
Social Profile
Food & Drink: Rice is the staple food and the Iranians cook it superbly. Dishes include chelo khoresh (rice topped with vegetables and meat in a nut sauce), polo chele (pilau rice), polo sabzi (pilau rice cooked with fresh herbs), polo chirin (sweet-sour saffron-coloured rice with raisins, almonds and orange), adas polo (rice, lentils and meat), morgh polo (chicken and pilau rice), chelo kababs (rice with skewered meats cooked over charcoal), kofte (minced meat formed into meatballs), kofte gusht (meatloaf), abgusht (thick stew), khoreshe badinjan (mutton and aubergine stew), mast-o-khier (cold yoghurt-based soup flavoured with mint, chopped cucumber and raisins) and dolmeh (stuffed aubergine, courgettes or peppers). Most Iranian meals are eaten with a spoon and fork, but visitors may choose a Western dish and eat with a knife and fork.
Fruit and vegetable juices are popular, as are sparkling mineral waters. Tea is also popular and drunk in the many tea-houses (ghahve khane). The consumption of alcohol is strictly forbidden.
Shopping: While the shops offer a wide selection of quality goods, local items can be bought in the many bazaars. Purchases include hand-carved, inlaid woodwork, carpets, rugs, silks, leather goods, mats, tablecloths, gold, silver, glass and ceramics. Bargaining is customary. There are restrictions on which items may be taken out of the country; see Duty Free section for details. Shopping hours: Generally 0900-1300 and 1500-2000.
Social Conventions: Feelings about certain countries (such as the USA and the UK) run high, so the visitor should avoid contentious subjects. The Westernisation of the Iranian way of life has been arrested since the fall of the Shah, and Koranic law exercises a much more traditional influence over much of the populace. In general, Western influences are now discouraged. Handshaking is customary, but not with members of the opposite sex. Visitors should address hosts by their surname or title. Iranians are very hospitable and like to entertain. It is also customary to be offered tea, and guests are expected to accept such offers of hospitality. Because of Islamic customs, dress should be conservative and discreet, especially women’s. Businessmen are expected to wear a suit and more formal attire is also needed in smart dining rooms and for important social functions. During Ramadan, smoking, eating and drinking in public are prohibited between sunrise and sunset; however, facilities are always available in major hotels. Tipping: In large hotels, a ten to 15 per cent service charge is added to the bill. In restaurants (chelokababis) it is usual to leave some small change. Tipping is not expected in tea-houses or small hotels.
Business Profile
Economy: Iran’s main sources of income are its huge oil and gas deposits, which are among the world’s largest. The agricultural sector is important for the numbers employed, although output has been depressed by drought and migration of rural labour to the cities. Both subsistence crops, mainly wheat, barley and sugar, and cash crops are grown. The manufacturing sector, which accounts for about one-sixth of total output, produces textiles, food-processing and transport equipment. Apart from hydrocarbons, Iran also has viable deposits of coal, magnesium ores and gypsum. Government policy has sought to promote the agricultural and light industry in order to reduce the economy’s dependence on oil and increase the influence of the private sector – about 80 per cent of economic activity is state controlled. The economy is performing steadily at present: although accurate figures are hard to come by, annual growth is estimated at four to five per cent and inflation at a moderate 12-15 per cent.
On the trade front, Iran has been developing important new links with the newly independent states of central Asia as well as Turkey and China, although these have scarcely compensated for the effects of the Western trade boycott which lasted throughout the 1980s and much of the 1990s. Trade with Western Europe has recovered reasonably well but US bilateral trade is still at a low level.
Business: Most Iranian businessmen speak English and are polite and conservative in manner and expect an appropriate response from visitors. Exchanging calling cards is normally restricted to senior people. Appointments should be made and punctuality is expected for business meetings. Business gifts are quite acceptable. Office hours: Sat to Wed 0800-1600, Thurs 0900-1200 (some offices may close all day).
Commercial Information: The following organisation can offer advice: Export Promotion Centre, PO Box 1148, Tadjrish, Dr Chamran Highway, Tehran (tel: (21) 21911; fax: (21) 204 2858 or 204 5733; website: www.iran-export.com); or Iranian Trade Association, World Trade Centre San Diego, Suite 204, 9635 Dowdy Drive, San Diego, California 92126, USA (tel: (858) 564 0560; fax: (858) 564 0561; e-mail: info@iraniantrade.org; website: www.iraniantrade.org).
Climate
Dry and hot in summer, harsh in winter. Low annual rainfall.
Required clothing: Tropical attire is worn from April to October. Mediumweights are advised from November to March.
History and Government
History: The name Iran is derived from the Aryan tribes who took control of Persia around 1600 BC. In 550 BC Cyrus the Great seized the throne of one of the dominant tribes, the Medes, from which he established an empire covering Babylonia, Syria and Asia Minor and, later on, Thrace, Macedonia and Egypt. Cyrus’ empire was conquered in the latter part of the fourth century BC by the Greek general Alexander the Great, and then overrun by the Parthians in the early third century BC. They in turn were supplanted by Ardashir, founder of the Sassanian empire in the early third century AD. Four hundred years later, in AD 640, Persia was conquered by the Arabs, who established the Islamic religion in the region.
After a brief occupation by the Turks, Persia was taken over by the Mongols and then in the 1380s by Timur, better known as Tamerlane, the Mongol leader of an empire centred in modern-day Uzbekistan. Timur also conquered Azerbaijan and parts of Iraq, Syria and Turkey before his death during an invasion of China at the turn of the 15th century. Violent disorder consumed the country for the next 100 years until the first of the Safavid dynasty took control at the beginning of the 16th century. Their rule lasted until the beginning of the 18th century; Ardir Shah, a legendary figure in Iranian history, then ruled for 20 years until deposed in 1747. A new dynasty of rulers, the Qajars, established themselves at the end of the 18th century. By this time Persian territory, which included parts of modern Georgia, Armenia and Afghanistan, was coming under threat from Russia, then in one of its expansionist periods, and Britain, which sought to consolidate its already substantial position in south Asia.
The two imperial powers occupied Persia during World War I, after which a senior army officer, Colonel Reza Khan, launched a successful military coup and – with the blessing of the British and Russians – took control of the country in 1921. In 1925, Reza Khan was proclaimed Shah, bringing an end to the Qajar Dynasty. Reza Khan himself was forced to abdicate in favour of his son (Reza Pahlavi) in 1941. The British and Russians again took effective control of the country for the duration of World War II before withdrawing in 1946. It took until the early 1960s for the new Shah to establish effective control over the country, promising prosperity through industrialisation and modernisation. The discovery of large oil deposits provided the financial resources to put this into effect.
The regime developed close relations with the West, especially the USA, which saw Iran as a bulwark against communism and militant Arab nationalism. However, in pursuing this political agenda, the Shah ignored the traditional influence exerted by the Islamic clergy, and this was the ultimate cause of his downfall. The destabilising effects of rapid change on traditional Iranian society, coupled with the Shah’s intolerance of opposition, produced increasing political tension in the country. By the late 1970s the growing discontent had found a focus in the fundamentalist preachings of the exiled religious leader Ayatollah Khomeini. Faced with massive opposition from both Islamic fundamentalists and secular liberals, as well as uncertainty within the ranks of the previously loyal army, by January 1979 the Shah’s position was untenable and he fled the country.
Ayatollah Khomeini returned to Iran in triumph, and in doing so he effectively ensured that the Islamic clergy would prevail over secular elements in establishing the new order in Iran. Over the next two years, secular opponents of the Shah were steadily displaced as the Islamic clergy asserted total political control. The global resurgence of Islam since then owes much to the Iranian revolution: Muslims throughout Asia and North Africa were inspired by the example of Iran and most countries with a significant Muslim population have experienced some political turbulence, with in many cases significant change as a result. The reaction in the West was almost uniformly hostile, and focused on the occupation of the US embassy in Tehran in 1979 as a cause célèbre.
By September 1980, the new government in Tehran had a far more serious situation to deal with when Iraq, which was looking to exploit post-revolutionary instabilities to pursue territorial and other claims against its ancient foe, launched a full-scale invasion. The eight years of fighting which followed, often resembling the worst excesses of the trench warfare of World War I, came to a close in August 1988, with next to nothing gained by either side and with the loss of hundreds of thousands of lives on both. While Iran turned inwards after the war, its former adversary decided to take on the rest of the world in the ill-fated invasion of Kuwait. Iran was largely a spectator to the conflict, although it did gain diplomatically from Iraq’s subsequent defeat. It also gained another surge of refugees fleeing Saddam’s post-war vengeance.
Added to the existing Afghan, Kurdish and Iraqi refugees, this left Iran host to one of the world’s single largest population of refugees. On the domestic front, the late 1980s saw the rise to power of the Majlis (parliament) speaker, Hojat-al-Islam Ali Akbar Hasemi Rafsanjani. While Khomeini was alive, effective political power was concentrated in his hands. Upon his death in 1989, it was divided between two key posts: the ‘supreme religious leader’ and the elected president of the republic. Conflicts between these two centres of power have dominated Iranian politics ever since Khomeini’s death. In 1989, Rafsanjani assumed the presidency while a close ally of Khomeini’s, Ayatollah Khamene’i, replaced his former mentor.
Rafsanjani was re-elected in 1993 against nominal opposition. When Rafsanjani finally stood down in 1997, a number of candidates (approved by the Council of Guardians, the religious body headed by Khamene’i) were authorised. Among these, and unknown at the time, was Sayed Muhammad Khatami, who by virtue of exhaustive campaigning and an appeal to the liberal parts of Iranian society, won a substantial majority. Khatami pledged, and has tried to put into effect, reforms easing the more severe aspects of Islamic doctrine, particularly as it has affected social mores, the media and aspects of economic development. His arguments rest on the clear failings of the immediate post-Khomeini era. He also enjoys the overwhelming support of the population. Standing for a second term in June 2001, he secured 78 per cent of the popular vote. But he has repeatedly come into conflict with the conservative clergy and their supporters in key parts of the state bureaucracy, especially the police, security services and the judiciary. The conservatives can also broadly rely on the Council of Guardians, which Khatami can do little to challenge directly, to block reforms. Crackdowns on prominent reformers and the media are a regular occurrence. Abroad, the conservatives are deeply suspicious of his efforts to improve links with the West. These have had some success, notably in Europe where all the major states, including now the UK, have re-established full diplomatic and trade links with Tehran. The US, however, has set itself in firm opposition to Iran, denouncing it in 2002 as part of a so-called ‘axis of evil’: short of a complete change of regime, it seems that there is nothing the Iranians can do to mollify the enmity of the US. In particular, the Americans are highly suspicious of Iranian influence over the new government in Afghanistan, with which Iran enjoys historical and ethnic links.
Government: Legislative power is vested in the Islamic Consultative Assembly (Majlis), with 270 members. The chief executive is the President, elected (as is the Assembly) by universal adult suffrage for a four-year term. A 12-member Council of Guardians, led by the country’s supreme religious leader, Ayatollah Khamene’i, officially ensures that legislation is in accordance with the constitution and Islamic precepts, but in reality enjoys extensive powers and influence over all aspects of policy. Iran is divided into 26 provinces; each has an appointed governor.
Copyright © 2003 Columbus Publishing Ltd.
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