Lebanon General Information Area: 10,452 sq km (4036 sq miles). Population: 3,282,000 (UN estimate 2000). Population Density: 314.0 per sq km. Capital: Beirut. Population: 1,500,000 (1990). GEOGRAPHY: Lebanon lies to the east of the Mediterranean, sharing borders to the north and east with Syria, and to the south with Israel. It is a mountainous country and between the two mountain ranges of Jebel Lubnan (Mount Lebanon), Mount Hermon and the Anti-Lebanon range lies the fertile Bekaa Valley. Approximately half of the country lies at an altitude of over 900m (3000ft). Into this small country is packed such a variety of scenery that there are few places to equal it in beauty and choice. The famous cedar trees grow high in the mountains, while the lower slopes bear grapes, apricots, plums, peaches, figs, olives and barley, often on terraces painstakingly cut out from the mountainsides. On the coastal plain, citrus fruit, bananas and vegetables are cultivated, with radishes and beans grown in tiny patches. Government: Republic. Head of State: President Emile Lahoud since 1998. Head of Government: Prime Minister Rafiq al-Hariri since 2000. Language: The official language is Arabic, followed by French as the second language; English is widely spoken. Kurdish and Armenian are spoken by a small percentage of the population. Religion: Islam and Christianity are the main religions. Islam (predominantly Shi’ite) accounts for approximately 40 per cent of the population’s beliefs. Christian denominations, mainly Greek Orthodox, Maronite, Armenian and Protestant account for another 40 per cent. Other religions account for the remaining 20 per cent (including a very small Jewish community). Time: GMT + 2 (GMT + 3 from April to September). Electricity: 220 volts AC, 50Hz. Communications:   Telephone IDD is available. Country code: 961. Outgoing international code: 00. Cellular phones are widely used and are available for hire to visitors. Mobile telephone GSM 900 network in use. Network providers are Libancell (website: www.libancell.com.lb) and Cellis (website: www.cellis.com.lb). Fax International facilities available. Faxes can be sent from centrales (state telephone bureaux) in major towns and from most hotels (who often add 25 per cent to the official rates). Internet The main ISPs are Cyberia (website: www.thisiscyberia.com) and IDM (website: www.idm.net.lb). There are Internet cafes in Beirut, Tripoli and most major towns. Post With the newly privatised LibanPost, post to Europe usually takes two to four days and to the USA between four to seven days. Post offices are open Mon-Thurs 0800-1400, Fri 0800-1100. Press There are more than 30 daily newspapers published in Arabic, Armenian and French and over 100 publications appear on a weekly or monthly basis. The Daily Star and Beirut Times are published in English and there are several English-language weeklies, primarily Monday Morning. The best-selling Arabic dailies are Al Anwar, An Nahar, Al Liwa‘, Al Safir and Al Dyar. The most important dailies in French are L’Orient-Le Jour and Le Soir. A wide choice of international newspapers and magazines are also available. BBC World Service and Voice of America frequencies: From time to time these change. BBC (website: www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice): MHz 15.58 11.76 9.410 1.413 Voice of America (website: www.voa.gov): MHz 15.21 11.82 9.760 1.197 Passport/Visa   Passport Required? Visa Required? Return Ticket Required? British Yes Yes/1 Yes Australian Yes Yes/1 Yes Canadian Yes Yes/1 Yes USA Yes Yes/1 Yes OtherEU Yes Yes/1 Yes Japanese Yes Yes/1 Yes Restricted entry: The Government of Lebanon refuses entry to holders of Israeli and Palestinian passports, holders of passports containing a visa for Israel, valid or expired, used or unused and passports with entry stamps to Israel. PASSPORTS: Passport valid for six months required by all except nationals of Syria arriving from their country with a valid national ID. VISAS: Required by all except the following: (a) nationals of Syria for unlimited stays, provided arriving directly from Syria (check with Embassy for current regulations); (b) nationals of Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia and the UAE for stays of up to three months; (c) transit passengers continuing their journey by the same or first connecting aircraft provided holding onward or return documentation and not spending the night at or leaving the airport. Note: 1. The following can obtain their visas on arrival at Beirut International Airport or any other port of entry at the Lebanese border, providing passport holders do not possess an Israeli stamp, and they hold return or onward tickets: (a) nationals of countries listed in the chart above; (b) nationals of Andorra, Argentina, Brazil, Chile, China (PR), Costa Rica, Cyprus, Hong Kong (SAR), Iceland, Korea (Rep), Liechtenstein, Malaysia, Malta, Mexico, Monaco, New Zealand, Norway, Panama, Peru, Singapore, Switzerland and Venezuela. The above list is subject to frequent changes. All visitors requiring a visa should contact the Consulate (or Consular section at Embassy) before leaving for details about where to obtain their visa; see Contact Addresses section. Types of visa and cost: Visitor and Business: £25 (single-entry); £50 (multiple-entry). Transit (available at the border): US$25. Validity: Visitor visas are generally issued for stays of up to three months. Application to: Consulate (or Consular section at Embassy); see Contact Addresses section. Application requirements: (a) Valid passport. (b) Two completed application forms. (c) Two passport-size photos. (d) Fee payable by cash or postal order only. (e) For Visitor visas, a letter of invitation from Lebanese host or confirmation of accommodation booking from travel agent. (f) For Business visas, a letter of invitation from the Lebanese host company and/or the applicant’s company in country of origin. (g) Stamped, self-addressed, registered envelope for postal applications. Note: Children under 18 years old require written consent from their parents/guardian before their visa can be processed. Working days required: One to two days. Temporary residence: Formalities for temporary residence will be arranged in Lebanon. For details of student and employment visas, enquire at Consulate (or Consular section at Embassy); see Contact Addresses section. Money Currency: Lebanese Pound (L£) = 100 piastres. Notes are in denominations of L£100,000, 50,000, 20,000, 10,000, 5000, 1000, 500, 250 and 100. Coins are in denominations of L£500, 250, 100 and 50. Currency exchange: There are a large number of banks in Beirut where international currencies can be exchanged. Unofficial money changers also operate and some hotels offer exchange services. US Dollars are best and do not need to be exchanged as they are accepted even in small shops. Credit & debit cards: All major credit cards are widely accepted. Check with your credit or debit card company for details of merchant acceptability and other services which may be available. Travellers cheques: Limited acceptance, as major banks only accept certain types of travellers cheques. Travellers cheques also require up to two weeks to clear and are therefore generally not recommended. Currency restrictions: There are no restrictions on the import or export of local or foreign currency. Exchange rate indicators The following figures are included as a guide to the movements of the Lebanese Pound against Sterling and the US Dollar: Date May ’02 Aug ’02 Nov ’02 Feb ’03 £1.00= 2206.72 2299.98 2391.47 2410.67 $1.00= 1514.25 1512.25 1512.25 1514.00 Banking hours: Mon-Fri 0800-1400, Sat 0800-1230. Some banks stay open until 1700. Duty Free The following goods may be imported into Lebanon by non-residents without incurring customs duty: 500 cigarettes; 25 cigars or 200g of tobacco (1 June until 31 Oct) or 500g of tobacco, no cigars (1 Nov until 31 May); 1l of alcohol; a reasonable amount of perfume. Restricted items: A valid import licence is required for any arms or ammunition. Antiques cannot be exported without prior permission from the relevant authorities. Public Holidays Nov 1 2002 All Saints’ Day. Nov 22 Independence Day. Dec 6-8 Eid al-Fitr (End of Ramadan). Dec 25 Christmas Day. Jan 1 2003 New Year’s Day. Jan 6 Armenian Christmas (community holiday). Jan 7 Orthodox Christmas (community holiday). Feb 9 Feast of St Maron. Feb 12 Eid al-Adha (Feast of the Sacrifice). Mar 5 Islamic New Year. Mar 14 Ashoura. Apr 18 Good Friday. Apr 21 Easter Monday. Apr 25 Orthodox Good Friday. Apr 28 Orthodox Easter Monday. May 1 Labour Day. May 6 Martyrs’ Day. May 14 Mawlid (Prophet’s Birthday). Aug 15 Assumption. Sep 24 Lailat al Miraj (Ascent of the Prophet). Nov 1 All Saints’ Day. Nov 22 Independence Day. Nov 26-28 Eid al-Fitr (End of Ramadan). Dec 25 Christmas Day. Jan 1 2004 New Year’s Day. Jan 6 Armenian Christmas (Armenian community only). Jan 7 Orthodox Christmas (community holiday). Feb 2 Eid al-Adha (Feast of the Sacrifice). Feb 9 Feast of St Maron. Feb 22 Islamic New Year. Mar 2 Ashoura. Apr 9 Good Friday (including Orthodox). Apr 12 Easter Monday (including Orthodox). May 1 Labour Day. May 2 Mawlid (Prophet’s Birthday). May 6 Martyrs’ Day. Aug 15 Assumption. Sep 12 Lailat al Miraj (Ascent of the Prophet). Nov 1 All Saints’ Day. Nov 14-16 Eid al-Fitr (End of Ramadan). Nov 22 Independence Day. Dec 25 Christmas Day. Note: Muslim feasts are timed according to local sightings of various phases of the moon and the dates given above are approximations. During the lunar month of Ramadan that precedes Eid al-Fitr, Muslims fast during the day and feast at night and normal business patterns may be interrupted. Many restaurants are closed during the day and there may be restrictions on smoking and drinking. Some disruption may continue into Eid al-Fitr itself. Eid al-Fitr and Eid al-Adha may last anything from two to ten days, depending on the region. For more information, see the World of Islam appendix. Health   Special Precautions Certificate Required Yellow Fever No 1 Cholera No No Typhoid and Polio 2 N/A Malaria No N/A 1: A yellow fever vaccination certificate is required from travellers arriving from infected areas. 2: Typhoid occurs in rural areas. Food & drink: Mains water is normally chlorinated, and whilst relatively safe may cause mild abdominal upsets. Bottled water is available and is advised for the first few weeks of the stay. Drinking water outside main towns and cities is likely to be contaminated and sterilisation is considered essential. Milk is pasteurised and dairy products are safe for consumption. Local meat, poultry, seafood, fruit and vegetables are generally considered safe to eat. Other risks: Hepatitis A and hepatitis B are present, but rare. Rabies is present. For those at high risk, vaccination before arrival should be considered. If you are bitten, seek medical advice without delay. For more information, consult the Health appendix. Health care: Health insurance is essential. Lebanese hospitals are very modern and well equipped and many doctors are highly qualified, reputed to be among the best in the world. All doctors speak either English or French. The majority of hospitals in the region are private and require proof of the patient’s ability to pay the bill before providing treatment (even in emergency cases). Visitors who are not insured and require hospitalisation should contact their Embassy for advice. Standards at Lebanon’s public hospitals are much lower. The two best hospitals in the country are the Hôtel Dieu in Achrafieh, Beirut and the American University/AUB Hospital in Hamra, Beirut. Travel - International AIR: The national airline is Middle East Airlines (ME), which operates nine direct flights per week from London to Beirut. Further information can be obtained from the Middle East Airlines office in the UK (tel: (020) 7758 9000 (general enquiries) or (reservations) 7493 5681). British Mediterranean (a franchise partner of British Airways) operates daily non-stop services from London to Beirut. Air France also operates direct flights to Beirut. International airports: Beirut International (BEY) (Khalden) is 16km (10 miles) south of the city (travel time – 20 minutes). A bus service operates to the city centre (0600-2000) leaving every 30 minutes. Taxis are also available. Airport facilities include a tourist information desk, duty-free shops, post office (0700-2000), restaurants, bars, hotel reservations (0700-2200) and bank/bureau de change (24-hour). After extensive reconstruction and redevelopment, facilities at Beirut’s airport have been greatly improved and now include a VIP lounge as well as new transport links (via new roads, tunnels and bridges) to the central city district. Departure Tax: L£100,000 for first class; L£75,000 for business class; and L£50,000 for economy class. SEA: Main international ports are Beirut, Tripoli, Jounieh, Tyre and Sidon. Cruise ships are available from Jounieh. Cruise lines operating to Lebanon include First European, Fred Olsen and Louis Cruise Lines. The sea connection between the Cypriot port of Larnaca and Jounieh in Lebanon can be closed and travellers considering that route are advised to check with the Ministry of Tourism or the Embassy. RAIL: There are no passenger services operating at present. ROAD: Best international routes are via Turkey and Aleppo–Homs and Lattakia in Syria along the north–south coastal road, and also the Beirut–Damascus trunk road. Bus services are available from Europe. For details, contact the Ministry of Tourism or the Embassy (see Contact Addresses section). Travel - Internal AIR: There are no internal flights. SEA: Ports are served by coastal passenger ferries. For details, contact the Embassy (see Contact Addresses section). ROAD: Traffic drives on the right. Speed limit signs, traffic police and traffic lights are present but may not always be respected and driving, particularly in Beirut, can be quite unpredictable. As public transport is limited, roads in Beirut are overcongested. The worst times for traffic jams are 0730-0930 and 1630-1900. Bus: Intercity buses run by private companies are cheap and efficient. Many hotels also offer complimentary bus and other transport services. Taxi: Intercity taxis operate throughout Beirut and Lebanon. Travel is normally shared. Prices are negotiated in advance. Town taxis have red licence plates and an official tariff. There is a surcharge of 50 per cent after 2200. Car hire: Self-drive cars are available, but chauffeur-driven vehicles are recommended. Check with the Ministry of Tourism. Documentation: An International Driving Permit and Green Card are required. URBAN: Public bus services are available in Beirut, where bus services have recently been expanded, although service taxis remain the most widely used option. Accommodation HOTELS: Following the large-scale destruction during the civil war, Beirut’s hotels have now all been rebuilt, and a number of new ones added. Lebanon today offers accommodation to suit all budgets, and the Ministry of Tourism publishes an annual hotel guide which lists most of the hotels in the country. Outside Beirut, however, hotels are few and far between, particularly in the South. Visitors are advised to check reservations through a Lebanese representative at home before departing. Winter and summer rates are the same. Accommodation rates are normally subject to a 15 per cent service charge. Grading: Hotels are classified from 1 to 4 stars (A and B within each class) and luxury. Prices are usually quoted in US Dollars and only hotels with rooms costing more than US$50 tend to accept credit cards. For further information, contact the Lebanese Hotels Owners Association, Sodeco Street, PO Box 166011, Beirut (tel: (1) 202 059 or 329 095/6; fax: (1) 201 002; e-mail: synhotlb@cyberia.net.lb ) or the Ministry of Tourism (see Contact Addresses section). GUEST-HOUSES: Local hostels are available in coastal villages with reasonable prices. SELF-CATERING: Furnished and other apartments are available for rent. CAMPING/YOUTH HOSTELS: There is a number of campsites throughout Lebanon, notably in Amchite, near Byblos, and particularly in mountain regions, such as Chouk and Barouk. For further information on campsites, cheap rooms, youth hostels and work camps, contact the Ministry of Tourism (see Contact Addresses section). Introduction BEIRUT: Once known as the ‘Paris of the East’, Beirut commands a magnificent position, thrust into the Mediterranean. Behind the city are towering mountains, visible when the traffic haze settles down. The Corniche seafront boasts beaches, restaurants, theatres and a dazzling variety of shops and restaurants. Beirut suffered greatly from Lebanon’s 16-year civil war, but following an impressive and ongoing process of reconstruction, the city is once again one of the most popular tourist and business destinations in the Middle East. The so-called ‘Green Line’ which, during the war, divided the city into East and West, has now gone, and two competing centres have grown up several kilometres apart. One is Hamra in West Beirut, where the American University is located along with the majority of hotels. The other is Achrafieh in East Beirut, home to the Université St Joseph and an increasing number of smart shops and expensive restaurants. Beirut’s Central District, known as Solidere (the company in charge of the reconstruction programme), is seeing a spectacular number of modern buildings and office blocks springing up everywhere. After massive landfill, two new marinas, a new seaside promenade and a green park are also planned. While many of the new buildings look very modern, Beirut’s old souks (covered markets) are being reconstructed in an authentic way. The Turkish bath at Al-Nouzha provides another glimpse of the old Beirut. Lebanon’s only museum, the Beirut National Museum, has been rehabilitated and is constantly updating its interesting collection. On the western tip of Beirut, Raouche is an increasingly popular district with a lively seaside promenade. Its famous landmark, the Pigeon Rocks, are huge formations standing like sentinels off the coast. Excursions: Around 20km (13 miles) north of Beirut, the spectacular Jeita caverns are a popular tourist attraction. The caverns are on two levels, and the lower gallery includes an underground waterway which can be visited by boat (and may be closed during winter). TRIPOLI: The country’s second city, Tripoli is Lebanon’s most Arabian city and retains much of its provincial charm. Its history dates back to the eighth century BC and the town centre, though surrounded by modern housing developments and beach resorts, has preserved its character. There are two parts – the port area and the city proper – which are divided by acres of fragrant orange plantations. Tripoli’s old medieval centre at the foot of the Crusader castle has a number of interesting mosques, including the Great Mosque, Taynâl, Al-Muallaq Burtasiyat Madrassa and Al-Qartâwiyat Madrassa. The old souks (covered markets) provide interesting shopping. Tripoli is famous for its sweets and traditional olive-oil-based soap. The port area, known as Al Mina, has numerous seafood restaurants and fish markets; most hotels can be found in the modern beach resorts along the coast. Excursions: Just off Tripoli, numerous small islands can be visited, the largest of which, the Island of Palm Trees, has been listed by UNESCO as a nature reserve for green turtles and rare birds. TYRE: Tyre was founded at the start of the third millennium BC and, today, still bears impressive traces of its ancient origins. Tyre’s archaeological sites are divided into three areas: area one is located on what was the Phoenician island and contains ruins of the large district of civic buildings, public baths and mosaic streets; area two contains an extensive network of Romano-Byzantine roads and other installations; area three is most notable for containing one of the largest Roman hippodromes ever found. BYBLOS: Byblos is reputed to be the oldest town in the world, with excavations unearthing artefacts dating back to Neolithic times as well as from Canaanite, Phoenician, Hellenistic, Roman and Crusader periods. Fishing boats and pleasure craft ply the old harbour. Today, Byblos is a thriving modern town, with the old town centre being the most interesting part for the visitor to explore. ELSEWHERE: A small port city between Beirut and Tyre, Sidon has a sea castle built of stone from Roman remains and it offers well-stocked markets. Beiteddine, in the Chouf Mountains, is the site of the palace built by the Amir Basheer in the 19th century. The courtyard and state rooms are well worth a visit. Near the Syrian border, Baalbek contains one of the best-preserved temple areas of the Roman world still in existence. It is, in fact, a complex of several temples behind which soar the columns of the Temple of Jupiter. Besharre, to the northwest, is best known as the birthplace of the famous Lebanese poet Khalil Gibran, author of The Prophet, and there is a Gibran museum. The town is also a gateway to the mountainous region, famous for its many cedar trees. Sport & Activities Golf: Lebanon has four golf courses, the best and most popular of which is The Golf Club of Lebanon. Situated on the outskirts of Beirut, the club offers an 18-hole 72 par course, with scenic views of the mountains on one side and the Mediterranean sea on the other. The club offers guest membership to visitors. Caddies and club rentals are available and special group green fees may be arranged. The course is playable all year. The club also includes a sport and leisure complex with facilities for tennis, squash, swimming and snooker as well as dining areas. Watersports: Scuba diving and snorkelling are available. The waters near the ancient city of Tyre offer some interesting underwater archaelogical ruins, which divers may explore. Swimming is generally popular and many beaches offer full facilities, with guest memberships and freshwater pools provided to supplement the sea. Other watersports that can be practised in Lebanon incude water-skiing and sailing. Boats may be rented by anglers along the coast, but most local anglers prefer to fish in the deep waters by the shore. Other: Despite its Mediterranean setting, skiing is possible in Lebanon and is actually quite popular. Mountain resorts such as The Cedars, Faraya, Laklouk, Zarour, Faqra and Qanat Bakish offer excellent accommodation and facilities. There is a wide selection of tennis courts in major towns and resorts. Horseriding is also popular, and Lebanon’s Equestrian Federation now includes six riding clubs with excellent Arab horses available. Social Profile Food & Drink: Lebanese cuisine is widely acknowledged to be the finest in the Middle East. The country’s gastronomic tradition is characterised by the use of an extremely wide variety of locally produced, and therefore extremely fresh, vegetables served in all forms and shapes with an abundance of fresh herbs (mostly coriander, parsley and mint). Excellent Lebanese food is available everywhere. A dish unique to Lebanon is kebbeh, made of lamb or fish pounded to a fine paste, with burghul or cracked wheat, and served raw or baked in flat trays or rolled into balls and fried. Also recommended is the traditional Lebanese mezza, a range of up to 40 small dishes served as hors d’oeuvres with arak. Main courses are likely to include Lebanese staple ingredients of vegetables, rice and mutton. Lahm mishwi (pieces of mutton with onions, peppers and tomato) is popular. Other typical dishes are tabbouli, houmos and mtabbal. Lebanese palates also favour pastries with local varieties of baked doughs flavoured with nuts, cream and syrup. A meal is always concluded with a wide range of fresh fruit, including melon, apples, oranges, persimmon, tangerines, cactus fruit, grapes and figs, which are all grown locally. Beirut also offers a large choice of international restaurants which offer dishes from all over the world. Bars have table and/or counter service. Alcohol is not prohibited. Nightlife: Nightclubs spice up the evenings in Beirut and mountain resorts. Entertainment ranges from solo guitarists to orchestras and floor shows. Some British-style pubs can be found in Beirut. There are many cinemas presenting the latest films from all over the world. After extensive refurbishment, the internationally renowned Casino du Liban in Maameltain (22km/14 miles north of Beirut) was reopened in 1997, and is now equipped with even more lavish gambling halls, luxurious restaurants and a cabaret. Shopping: Lebanon’s traditional souks or markets are found all over the country offering decorative and precious handmade items at very low prices. Special purchases include traditional pottery and glassware, as well as cutlery made of tempered steel or copper with ram or buffalo bone handles shaped in the form of beautiful and colourful birds’ heads. Brass and copper goods include braziers, bowls, fluted jugs, ashtrays, swords and doorstops, all attractively designed and hand engraved. Cloth, silk and wool kaftans, abayas (embroidered nightwear) and table linen are popular, as are handworked gold and silver. Shops sell the latest Western goods including clothes, cosmetics, furniture and electrical appliances. Shopping hours: Mon-Sat 0800-1900. Social Conventions: Lebanese people are known for their hospitality. Handshaking is the normal form of greeting. It is acceptable to give a small gift, particularly if invited home for a meal. As far as dress is concerned, casual dress is suitable for daytime wear, except in main towns where dress tends to be rather formal. Smarter hotels and restaurants often require guests to dress for dinner. Smoking is common and acceptable unless specified otherwise. Tipping: In hotels and restaurants, a tip of between five per cent and ten per cent of the bill is expected. It is not necessary to tip taxi drivers. Business Profile Economy: The 15-year civil war from 1976 to 1991 all but completely destroyed the economy; Beirut’s position as a major financial and commercial centre for the Middle East was lost. Since then, both Lebanon and its capital have gone a long way to re-establishing themselves. Agriculture sustained the population during the civil war (and previously accounted for nearly a quarter of GDP), with citrus fruit, olives and cereals as the main products. Light industries include textiles, processed foods and industrial machinery. There are no significant mineral resources, but the manufacturing industry is growing rapidly. In the all-important service sector, the two main components, banking and transit trade (both of which were almost wiped out during the civil war) have recovered reasonably well. Essential reconstruction, financed by expatriate capital, international aid and foreign investment, began with infrastructure projects. A variety of programmes were consolidated in the ‘Horizon 2000’ under which, beginning in 1993, the Government committed to spending an estimated US$20 billion on reconstruction. However, by the late 1990s, the Government’s failure to control the budget deficit and external debt was causing serious difficulties. Moreover, Lebanon is critically affected by political developments in the region. At the end of 2000, the Government introduced a major reform programme based on privatisation and promotion of foreign investment. This appears to be paying dividends and, in 2002, it was supplemented by a major bilateral trade deal with the EU. Besides the EU, Saudi Arabia, Syria, the United Arab Emirates and Kuwait are Lebanon’s principal trading partners. Business: Businesspeople usually wear a jacket and tie. English is spoken by many local businesspeople and normal courtesies are observed. Appointments and business cards are used. Office hours: Mon-Fri 0800-1330 and 1500-1800. Government office hours: Mon-Thurs 0800-1400, Fri 0800-1100, Sat 0800-1300. Commercial Information: The following organisations can offer advice: Beirut Chamber of Commerce and Industry, PO Box 11-1801, Rue Sanayeh, Sanayeh, Beirut (tel: (1) 353 390 or 744 160; fax: (1) 353 395; e-mail: info@ccib.org.lb; website: www.ccib.org.lb); or Ministry of Economy and Trade, Artois Street, Hamra, Beirut (tel: (1) 340 504/5; fax: (1) 354 640; website: www.economy.gov.lb); or Euro Info Correspondence Centre (EICC), PO Box 11-1801, 1 Rue Justinien, Sanayeh, Beirut (tel: (1) 744 163; fax: (1) 341 039; e-mail: anasr@euroinfocentre.net; website: www.euroinfocentre.net). Conferences/Conventions: Beirut is an increasingly popular business destination and a number of companies offer extensive conference and exhibition facilities. For further details, contact the Ministry of Tourism (see Contact Addresses section). Climate There are four seasons. Summer (June to September) is hot on the coast and cooler in the mountains. Spring and autumn are warm and pleasant. Winter (December to mid March) is mostly rainy, with snow in the mountains. History and Government History: The Lebanon, over the course of history, provided an inaccessible haven for tribes and religious groups escaping from repression and persecution in other parts of the Middle East. The principal groupings in the country are: the Maronites, Christians who – uniquely among Eastern Christians – maintained links with, and secured support from, their co-religionists in Europe; the Greek Orthodox Christians; the Shia Muslims, who arrived in Lebanon to escape persecution from the Sunni majority elsewhere in the Islamic world; and the Druze, a heretical Muslim sect founded in the tenth century. The colonial powers that subsequently occupied Lebanon – the Ottoman Turks and the French – were content to leave these sects more or less to themselves. The Turks took control of the area in the 16th century during the major expansion of the Ottoman Empire and remained there until the end of World War I. With the dissolution of that empire, the French were granted a League of Nations mandate to administer Lebanon until independence in 1941. From that time the disparate communities cohabited in relative peace with political power divided between Christians, Shia and Sunni Muslims. On this basis, Lebanon developed a thriving economy based on providing business services – banking and finance, transport and trade facilities – for other countries in the region. This situation prevailed until the 1970s when the Palestine Liberation Organisation (PLO), which had been expelled from Jordan in 1971, established itself in Lebanon with the tacit agreement of the Lebanese. The influx of a large new community with a powerful armed wing upset the relatively fragile political balance in Lebanon. The PLO’s presence ultimately led to the Israeli invasion of Lebanon in 1982. By then Lebanon had been engulfed in a six-year civil war between right-wing Christian militias (the Falange and the southern militia led by Saad Haddad, and later the forces led by General Michel Aoun) and various alignments of Muslim and Palestinian forces. Among the latter, the most important were the Amal movement and the more radical, Iranian-inspired Hezbollah organisation. Hezbollah, in particular, which grew from the radicalisation of the Shia population, bore the brunt of the subsequent fighting against the Christian militias and the Israelis. It is now a significant political force in Lebanon. After the war began in 1976, the capital Beirut was split across the ‘Green Line’ dividing the city between the Christian-dominated east of the city and the Muslim west. Central Government all but broke down, despite repeated attempts to find some kind of political solution. The Israeli invasion succeeded in driving most of the Palestinian guerrillas out of Lebanon, but failed in its principal political objective of installing a Christian-dominated government in power. The Israeli occupation earned Tel Aviv much international criticism. However, following the election of a coalition government in Tel Aviv, the Israelis withdrew in early 1985 to a self-declared ‘security zone’ in the south controlled by the IDF (Israeli Defence Forces) and their locally recruited Christian proxy militia, the South Lebanon Army (SLA). The ‘security zone’ became the scene of an attritional guerrilla war between the IDF/SLA and fighters from Hezbollah which came to an end in 1999 when the Israeli government decided to pull their troops out of the region (with their departure, the SLA immediately collapsed). In the rest of the country, the Syrian army proved to be the ultimate broker and guarantor of a political settlement of the civil war. This process began in November 1989 with the election of a National Assembly. A new President, Elias Hrawi (who succeeded his assassinated predecessor René Daowad) became one of a troika – Prime Minister Salim al-Hoss and the speaker of the parliament, Hussein Husseini, were the others – which led the official administration in the Muslim areas of Lebanon. By the end of 1991 the Syrians, with tacit Western acceptance following their participation in the UN anti-Iraqi coalition, were in control of Beirut and most of the north and centre of the country. Legislative elections were held in Lebanon in August and September 1992. Christian groups boycotted it – a decision they later appeared to regret as it allowed the Muslim parties, including Hezbollah, to take complete control of the parliament. President Elias Hrawi’s six-year term was due to expire in November 1995 but, after parliament decided to alter the constitution, his term was extended by a further three years. While this angered Christian leaders, it was quite acceptable to ‘Sister Syria’ (as official pronouncements have it) which still maintains a large troop deployment in Lebanon. The 1996 elections returned Hariri to continue as premier and the ex-Amal guerrilla leader, Nabih Berri, as speaker of the assembly. The original division of responsibilities between president and premier, which saw President Hrawi take charge of foreign policy while Prime Minister Rafik Hariri looked after the reconstruction programme, was also confirmed. That division has remained ever since and much of the country, and Beirut in particular, has recovered to something near its pre-war condition. Hariri relinquished his job in 1998, and at the same time Hrawi was replaced by Jamil Lahad as president. However Hariri, now a dominant figure in Lebanese politics, was reinstated in 2000 following the most recent poll which saw 17 parties share the 128 national Assembly seats. Relations with Israel have deteriorated in the last two years. There have been occasional outbreaks of fighting between Hezbollah guerrillas based in the south of the country and Israeli forces. In September 2002 the two governments became immersed in a serious argument about the allocation of water resources, one of the most sensitive issues in the region. Urgent US mediation has calmed the situation for the time being. Government: The amended 1926 Constitution under which Lebanon is now governed allows for the election of a National Assembly of 128 members every four years. Seats are allocated on a religious basis to ensure that each population is proportionately represented in the Assembly. An executive president who is also head of state is elected for a six-year term. Copyright © 2003 Columbus Publishing Ltd.