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Libyan Arab Jamahiriya
General Information
Area: 1,775,500 sq km (685,520 sq miles).
Population: 5,115,450 (2000).
Population Density: 2.9 per sq km.
Capital: Tripoli. Population: 990,700 (1984).
GEOGRAPHY: Libya consists mostly of huge areas of desert. It shares borders with Tunisia and Algeria in the west and Egypt in the east, while the Sahara extends across the southern frontiers with Niger, Chad and the Sudan. There are almost 2000km (1250 miles) of Mediterranean coast, with a low plain extending from the Tunisian border to the Jebel Akhdar (Green Mountain) area in the east. Inland the terrain becomes more hilly. Agriculture has developed mainly on the coast between Zuwarah and Misratah in the west and from Marsa Susa to Benghazi in the east. In the uplands of the old province of Cyrenaica and on Jebel Akhdar the vegetation is more lush. With the exception of the ‘Sand Sea’ of the Sarir Calanscio, and the Saharan mountains of the Sarir Tibesti, there are oases scattered throughout the country.
Government: Jamahiriya (state of the masses). Gained independence from Italy in 1951. Head of State: Muammar al-Qadhafi (Leader of the Revolution) since 1969. Head of Government: Mubarak Abdullah al-Shamikh (Secretary of the General People’s Committee) since 2000.
Language: Arabic (which must be used for all official purposes), with some English or Italian. All road, shop and other signs are in Arabic. English is normally understood by people working in hotels, restaurants and shops.
Religion: Sunni Muslim.
Time: GMT + 2.
Electricity: 150/220 volts AC, 50Hz. All services may be intermittently disrupted by power cuts.
Communications:
Telephone
IDD service is available. Country code: 218. Outgoing international code: 00.
Mobile telephone
GSM 900 and 1800 networks in use. Network providers include General Post and Telecommunications Company, Orbit and El Madar.
Internet
ISPs include Libya Telecom and Technology (website: www.lttnet.com) and Libyanet (website: www.libyanet.com). There are Internet cafes in Tripoli and some other towns.
Post
Postal services are available in all main towns, but services are generally poor and erratic, and mail may be subject to censorship. Airmail to Europe takes approximately two weeks.
Press
There are several newspapers and periodicals, but none is published in English. The main dailies are Al-Fajir al-Jadid and Az-zahf al-Akhdar.
BBC World Service and Voice of America frequencies: From time to time these change.
BBC (website: www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice):
Voice of America (website: www.voa.gov):
Passport/Visa
| | Passport Required? | Visa Required? | Return Ticket Required? | | British | Yes | Yes | Yes | | Australian | Yes | Yes | Yes | | Canadian | Yes/1 | Yes | Yes | | USA | Yes/1 | Yes | Yes | | OtherEU | Yes | Yes | Yes | | Japanese | Yes | Yes | Yes |
Restricted entry: (a) Holders of Israeli passports, or holders of passports containing a valid or expired visa for Israel will be refused entry or transit. (b) Travellers holding a Tourist or Business visa will be refused entry if they do not possess at least US$500 or equivalent. (c) Women married to, and children of, nationals of Arab League countries will be refused entry if they are travelling alone, unless they are met at the airport by their husband/father or unless they are holding a ‘No Objection Certificate’, issued by the Libyan Immigration Department, and are met at the airport by the resident relative who made the application.
PASSPORTS: Passport valid for a minimum of six months required by all except Algeria, Egypt, Mauritania, Morocco and Tunisia holding valid ID cards.
Note: 1. All US nationals must have their passports validated by the US Secretary of State prior to travel to, in or through Libya.
VISAS: Required by all except the following:
(a) nationals of Algeria, Egypt, Malta, Mauritania, Morocco and Tunisia;
(b) nationals of Jordan and Syria, provided arriving from their country of origin;
(c) transit passengers continuing their journey by the same or first connecting aircraft within 24 hours provided holding valid onward or return documentation and not leaving the airport.
Types of visa and cost: Tourist and Business: All visas cost £22. Work: £52.
Validity: 45 days.
Application to: Any of Libya’s diplomatic representatives in the relevant country or abroad (such as the Libyan People’s Bureau in London; see Contact Addresses section). Nationals of Germany must obtain their visas in Bonn/Berlin. Nationals of Canada must obtain their visas in Brussels, Belgium.
Application requirements: (a) One completed visa application form. (b) Two recent, passport-size photos. (c) Visa authorisation telex/invitation with reference number from Libya or travel agent. (d) Valid passport which must be translated into Arabic. A rubber stamp for this can be obtained from the passport office in the relevant country. (e) Business visitors should be sponsored by a Libyan company which will organise the issue of a Business visa.
Working days required: Three weeks.
Money
Currency: Libyan Dinar (LD) = 1000 dirhams. Notes are in denominations of LD10, 5 and 1, and 500 and 250 dirhams. Coins are in denominations of 100, 50, 20, 10, 5 and 1 dirhams.
Credit & debit cards: Limited acceptance of Diners Club and Visa. Check with your credit or debit card company for details of merchant acceptability and other services which may be available.
Travellers cheques: Travellers cheques are generally not accepted, owing to US government sanctions.
Currency restrictions: Free import of foreign currency, subject to declaration. Export of foreign currency is limited to the amount declared on arrival. The import and export of local currency is prohibited.
Exchange rate indicators
The following figures are included as a guide to the movements of the Libyan Dinar against Sterling and the US Dollar:
| Date | May ’02 | Aug ’02 | Nov ’02 | Feb ’03 | | £1.00= | 1.88 | 1.89 | 1.94 | 1.90 | | $1.00= | 1.29 | 1.24 | 1.23 | 1.20 |
Banking hours: Sat-Wed 0800-1200 (winter); Sat-Thurs 0800-1200 and Sat-Wed 1600-1700 (summer).
Duty Free
The following goods may be imported into Libya without incurring customs duty:
200 cigarettes or 250g of tobacco or 250g cigars; 250ml of perfume.
Prohibited items: All alcohol is prohibited, as is the import of obscene literature, pork, pork products and any kind of food. All goods made in Israel or manufactured by companies that do business with Israel are prohibited, for instance Coca Cola and certain makes of CDs and tapes. For a full list of prohibited items, contact the nearest Libyan diplomatic representative.
Public Holidays
Dec 6-8 2002 Eid al-Fitr (End of Ramadan). Feb 12 2003 Eid al-Adha (Feast of the Sacrifice). Mar 3 Declaratioin of the Authority’s Power. Mar 5 Islamic New Year. Mar 28 British Evacuation Day. Apr 7 Ashoura. May 14 Mouloud (Prophet’s Birthday). Jun 11 Evacuation Day. Jul 23 Revolution Day. Sep 1 National Day. Oct 7 Italian Evacuation Day. Nov 26-28 Eid al-Fitr (End of Ramadan). Feb 2 2004 Eid al-Adha (Feast of the Sacrifice). Feb 22 Islamic New Year. Mar 3 Declaration of the Authority’s Power. Mar 28 British Evacuation Day. Apr 7 Ashoura. May 2 Mouloud (Prophet’s Birthday). Jun 11 Evacuation Day. Jul 23 Revolution Day. Sep 1 National Day. Oct 7 Italian Evacuation Day. Nov 14-16 Eid al-Fitr (End of Ramadan).
Note: Muslim festivals are timed according to local sightings of various phases of the moon and the dates given above are approximations. During the lunar month of Ramadan that precedes Eid al-Fitr, Muslims fast during the day and feast at night and normal business patterns may be interrupted. Many restaurants are closed during the day and there may be restrictions on smoking and drinking. Some disruption may continue into Eid al-Fitr itself. Eid al-Fitr and Eid al-Adha may last anything from two to ten days, depending on the region. For more information see the World of Islam appendix.
Health
| | Special Precautions | Certificate Required | | Yellow Fever | No | 1 | | Cholera | 2 | No | | Typhoid and Polio | 3 | N/A | | Malaria | 4 | N/A |
1: A yellow fever vaccination certificate is required from travellers over one year of age arriving from infected areas.
2: Following WHO guidelines issued in 1973, a cholera vaccination certificate is not a condition of entry to Libya. However, cholera is a risk in this country and precautions are essential. Up-to-date advice should be sought before deciding whether these precautions should include vaccination, as medical opinion is divided over its effectiveness. See the Health appendix.
3: Immunisation against typhoid and poliomyelitis is often recommended.
4: A very limited malaria risk exists in the southwest of the country from February to August. No indigenous cases have been reported in recent years.
Food & drink: Mains water is normally chlorinated, and whilst relatively safe may cause mild abdominal upsets. Bottled water is available and is advised for the first few weeks of the stay. Drinking water outside main cities and towns is likely to be contaminated and sterilisation is considered essential. Milk is unpasteurised and should be boiled. Powdered or tinned milk is available and is advised, but make sure that it is reconstituted with pure water. Avoid dairy products which are likely to have been made from unboiled milk. Only eat well-cooked meat and fish, preferably served hot. Salad and mayonnaise may carry increased risk. Vegetables should be cooked and fruit peeled.
Other risks: Dysenteries, typhoid fever and other diarrhoeal diseases are common. Hepatitis A and E occur throughout the area. Bilharzia (schistosomiasis) is present. Avoid swimming and paddling in fresh water, swimming pools which are well chlorinated and maintained are safe. Cases of meningococcal meningitis have been reported in the Sebha region.
Health care: Medical facilities outside the main cities are limited. Full health insurance is recommended.
Travel - International
AIR: Libya’s national airline is Jamahiriya Libyan Arab Airlines (LN). Other airlines that serve Libya include BA, Royal Jordanian, Lufthansa and Olympic Airways.
Approximate flight times: From Tripoli to London is 6 hours (including stopover time).
International airports: Tripoli International (TIP) is 35km (21 miles) south of the city. Bus and taxi services are available to the city (travel time – 40 minutes). Airport facilities include 24-hour chemist, post office, light refreshments, duty-free shops, banks, restaurants (1300-1600) and shops (0730-2000).
Benghazi International (BEN) is 19km (12 miles) from Benghazi city centre.
Sebha (SEB) is 11km (7 miles) from the town.
Departure tax: LD6, except children under two years of age and transit passengers, provided not leaving the airport and departing within 24 hours.
SEA: The main ports are as-Sider, Benghazi, Darna, Mersa Brega, Misurata, El Mina and Tripoli. Several shipping lines operate services from Europe to Libya. A car ferry operated by the Libyan government shipping line sails regularly from Tripoli to Malta and several Italian ports. Italian lines Grimaldi and Tirrenia run similar services from Genoa, Trapani and Naples to Tripoli and Benghazi. Other cruise lines include Swan Hellenic and P&O.
RAIL: There is no passenger rail system.
ROAD: Main routes to Libya are from Tunisia, Algeria, Niger, Chad and Egypt. The most popular routes are via Tunisia or Egypt. Several buses and taxis operate on these routes.
Travel - Internal
AIR: Jamahiriya Libyan Arab Airlines (LN) provides fast and frequent internal services between Tripoli, Benghazi, Sebha, Al Bayda, Mersa Brega, Tobruk, Misratah, Ghadamis and Al Khufrah. They also offer an hourly shuttle between Tripoli and Benghazi.
Departure tax: LD3, except children under two years of age and transit passengers, provided not leaving the airport and departing within 24 hours.
ROAD: The main through road follows the coast from west to east. Main roads are Al Qaddahia–Sebha, Sebha–Ghat, Tripoli–Sebha, Agedabia–Al Khufrah, Garian–Jefren, Tarhouna–Homs, Mersa Susa–Ras, Hilal–Derna and Tobruk–Jaghboub. Since 1969, signposts other than those in Arabic script have been prohibited; signs and house numbers are, in any case, rare outside the main towns. Petrol is available throughout Libya and is very reasonably priced. There are no reliable town maps. Spare parts are often difficult to obtain; in particular, automatic transmissions can prove almost impossible to repair. The quality of servicing is generally poor by European standards, as is the standard of driving. Traffic drives on the right. Bus & taxi: There are bus services between Tripoli and Benghazi and other major urban areas. A minibus service operates from Benghazi to Tobruk. Taxi fares can be quite expensive and should be agreed in advance. Car hire: Self-drive cars are available in Tripoli and Benghazi. Documentation: National driving licence valid for three months. After this time, a Libyan licence must be obtained.
URBAN: A substantial publicly owned bus system operates in Tripoli. Fares are charged on a three-zone basis. There is a similar system in operation in Benghazi. Services are generally irregular and overcrowded.
Accommodation
Tripoli and Benghazi have several comfortable modern hotels. There are hotels in Al Bayda, Cyrene (Shahat), Ghadamès, Homs, Sabha, Tobruk and Derna.
Tripoli
Libya’s capital has retained much of its historical heritage; Tripoli’s old walled city is a picturesque African jumble of narrow alleyways leading to traditional mosques, houses and khans (public houses). The architecture is a fusion of the country’s many rulers and includes Turkish, Spanish, Maltese and Italian influences. Worth seeing is the ancient Marcus Aurelian Arch, the Al Nagha and Ahmed Pash mosques, and some of the many vibrant souqs (markets) in the heart of Medina (Tripoli’s centre).
Situated on a promontory above the city is Assai al-Hamra (Red Castle); a spectacular fortress stretching over an area of approximately 13,000 sq metres, that houses a maze of courtyards and buildings. Next to the castle on the Green Square is the Jamahiriya Museum that was designed in conjunction with UNESCO. Classical artefacts such as ancient mosaics and statues are among the extensive collection displayed here. Visitors to the city can also enjoy a number of beautiful Mediterranean beaches.
LEPTIS MAGNA: This historical town lies 120km (75 miles) east of Tripoli overlooking the Mediterranean. This incredible archaeological site was originally a port, built by the Phoenicians in the first millennium BC. Since then it became a Roman settlement and today many of the ruins from that time remain preserved. Among the things to see are the Severan Arch (erected in honour of Emperor Septimus Severus), the marble- and granite-lined Hadrianic Baths, a detailed basilica and an amphitheatre.
Beyond Tripoli
EASTERN REGION: Benghazi is Libya’s second largest city, located on the Eastern edge of the Gulf of Sirt. Far more commercial and less aesthetically pleasing then Tripoli, Benghazi is nevertheless a popular tourist spot due to its close proximity to a number of beautiful beaches. Ras Alteen is a nearby beach with pristine white sands. It has recently been the location of an amazing archaeological discovery where Greek and Byzantine graves from a colossal underwater city were recovered. Other historical sites include the battlefield of Tobruk, 140km east of Ras Alteen, and the town of Cyrene, 245km east of Benghazi.
The lush forested range of the Green Mountains is easily reached from Benghazi and Ras Alteen and is a great area for walking. A suspended cave named after the apostle Mark, who was thought to have been raised in the Green Mountains, can be found in the Marcus Valley.
WESTERN REGION: Ghadames, known as the ‘Pearl of the Desert’, is a unique desert oasis town 800km (500 miles) southwest of Tripoli. The old town’s unique architecture consists of white-washed mud walls and covered labyrinthine walkways that are only lit by overhead skylights and open squares. Worth seeing are the D’jmaa al-Kabir mosque, where the minaret can be climbed for a wonderful panorama of the city; Mulberry Square, site of the old slave market and the House Museum, that displays traditional mercantile furnishings.
Nearby are the Zallaf Sand Dunes, home to the native Tuareng tribe. Saline lakes with high mineral content and palm trees surround the dunes. In this unusual environment visitors can enjoy relaxing sand baths and salt-lake bathing.
Sport & Activities
There are good beaches for swimming away from the municipal beaches of Tripoli and Benghazi. Facilities for tennis, golf and 10-pin bowling are available in the major cities. Spectator sports include football and horseracing.
Social Profile
Food & Drink: Since alcohol was banned by the Government in 1969 many restaurants have closed, and those remaining are very expensive. Hotel restaurants, although not particularly good, are therefore often the only eating places. Traditional dishes include couscous, a dish based on savoury semolina that can be combined with chicken, lamb or vegetables and is a staple dish in many northern African countries; and ruuz, a rice dish with a variety of spices, meat and vegetables. Most restaurants have table service, and although food is traditionally eaten with the right hand only, knives and forks will generally be available.
Nightlife: All nightclubs and bars have been closed. There are several cinemas in major towns, some showing foreign films. There are no theatres or concert halls.
Shopping: Souks in the main towns are the workplaces of many weavers, copper-, gold- and silver-smiths and leatherworkers. There are numerous other stalls selling a variety of items including spices, metal engravings and various pieces of jewellery.
Social Conventions: Life in Libya is regulated fairly strictly along socialist/Islamic principles; in general, Arab courtesies and social customs prevail and should be respected. Women do not generally attend typical Arab gatherings. See also the World of Islam appendix. In religious buildings and small towns women should dress modestly. Beachwear must only be worn on the beach. Smoking is common and codes of practice concerning smoking are the same as in Europe. Photography: It is unwise to use or carry cameras. Tipping: A tip of ten to 20 per cent is usually included in hotel and restaurant bills.
Business Profile
Economy: Oil and gas-related industries account for the bulk of Libya’s economy; 95 per cent of export earnings come from oil. The high quality of Libyan oil has produced strong demand from consumers so that, despite relatively small reserves (compared to Saudi Arabia and Iran), Libya has been able to sustain high production levels of around 1.5 million barrels per day. The recent discovery of large deposits is a further bonus. Oil revenues have enabled the Government to build up the country’s economic infrastructure virtually from scratch since the early 1970s. However, low world oil prices and UN sanctions brought the economy to a virtual standstill during the 1990s, undermining economic development and forcing the cancellation of a number of large projects. By 2003, though, the Libyan Government’s rapprochement with the international community seems set to ease the situation.
Outside the oil and gas industry, agriculture is almost entirely geared to domestic consumption: animal husbandry is the most important part of this, but crops including barley and wheat are also grown in the country’s few fertile areas. An industrial sector producing petrochemicals, iron, steel and aluminium has also been developed.
Libya is a member of the Arab Development Bank, the Union of the Arab Maghreb and various other pan-Arab economic organisations. It is also a member of the Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC). Italy and Germany are Libya’s major trading partners.
Business: Shirt sleeves are acceptable business wear in hot weather. Suits and ties are worn for more formal occasions. Most business dealings take place with state organisations and English is often understood. It is, however, government policy for official documents to be in Arabic (or translated into Arabic) and for official business to be conducted in Arabic. Business visitors need to be fully prepared for this. Appointments are necessary and business cards are useful, though not widely used. Hours for businesses and government offices fluctuate, but the working day starts early. Office hours: Generally Sat-Wed 0700-1400.
Commercial Information: The following organisation can offer advice: Tripoli Chamber of Commerce, Industry and Agriculture, PO Box 2321, Sharia al-Fatah September, Tripoli. Tel: (21) 333 3755. Fax: (21) 333 2655.
Climate
Summers are very hot and dry: winters are mild with cooler evenings. The desert has hot days and cold nights.
History and Government
History: From the eighth century BC onwards (when the region was settled by the Phoenicians) Libya has been conquered and settled several times over. Its archaeological heritage includes both Greek and Roman remains. Present-day Libyans descend almost entirely from the Arabian incursion of the 11th century AD, with a few black Africans from the south and indigenous Berbers in the west. Although traditionally the rural people have been nomadic shepherds, since the discovery of oil there has been a drift into the towns. Once one of Italy’s few colonies, Libya was occupied by the British and French during World War II.
Under United Nations’ direction, the country was granted full independence in 1951. King Idris became head of state, pursuing a broadly pro-Western foreign policy while keeping up cordial relations with other Arab states. During the 1950s and 1960s, major discoveries of oil, with consequent benefits for state finances, greatly improved the economic prospects of the country. In 1969, a military coup occurred which not only radically altered Libyan politics, but brought the country to world attention. The coup was the last of the wave of Nasserite revolutions which had swept the Arab world over the previous years. The country was taken over by a Revolutionary Command Council, led by Colonel Muammar al-Gadhafi.
Domestically, Gadhafi embarked on the so-called Green Revolution (this was before the colour had become unequivocally associated with the worldwide environmental movement), under which all local and regional administration is devolved to a set of representative congresses and committees. The ultimate aim is the creation of a Jamahiriya – literally a ‘state of the masses’ (see below). An Islamic code of justice, less severe than those since adopted by Muslim fundamentalist regimes, was introduced and still operates. After over 30 years in power, Gadhafi is now one of the world’s longest serving heads of state. Open political dissent is not tolerated but there is a substantial and diverse opposition, ranging from liberal democrats to supporters of the old monarchy to Islamic fundamentalists. Most are in exile (mainly in Egypt and Britain). The most potent domestic opposition comes from the Fighting Islamic Group, which is allied to other Islamist organisations in North Africa and has made several attempts to assassinate Gadhafi.
Gadhafi’s 1969 takeover was not immediately opposed by Western governments, who were used to Nasserite rhetoric and believed that in practice an accommodation could be reached with the new regime. The turning point came in 1973 with Gadhafi’s nationalisation of the oil industry, including the Libyan operations of foreign multinationals, followed by the oil crisis of the same year in which Libya played a key role. Thereafter Libya – and Gadhafi especially – became a particular bugbear of the West. This arose from the Libyan government’s political and practical support for a variety of revolutionary and terrorist groups, its former practice of murdering its exiled opponents, its involvement in various attempts to undermine other African governments (including Chad, Burkina Faso and Sierra Leone), and its complicity in various acts of terrorism in the West. The most serious of these were the destruction of two airliners: one French over the Sahara in 1987, the other American over the Scottish town of Lockerbie the following year.
The West’s response was to impose economic sanctions, which have undoubtedly affected the Libyan economy, and to engage in a series of attempts to dispose of Gadhafi – most spectacularly the 1986 bombing of Tripoli – all of which have failed. Libya was also all but ostracised from the international community. The Libyan government has now made some reparations for its alleged misdeeds and a Libyan national has been convicted of the Lockerbie bombing – although there are many unexplained and contradictory features of this complex story. By 2002, most sanctions had been lifted and Libya had opened up a number of new channels to the West. The most important of these is with Italy, with which Libya has important historic and economic links. In October 2002, Italian premier Silvio Berlusconi became the first Western premier to visit Libya for a generation.
Gadhafi has gained support from many quarters for his latest initiative: a complete overhaul of the Organisation for African Unity, the continent-wide body set up in 1963 to promote solidarity, co-ordinate policy and guarantee national sovereignty amongst member states. Based in Addis Ababa, the OAU’s membership comprises every African country bar Morocco. The plan, which the Libyans are prepared to finance, ultimately aims to expand the OAU into something resembling the European Union. In North Africa, the 1990s saw a considerable improvement in relations with Egypt and the development of the Union of the Arab Maghreb as a regional political and economic forum.
In common with many dictators, Gadhafi seems likely to try to preserve his legacy by establishing a dynasty. At the moment, the leading candidate to succeed him is his son Seis al-Islam who is currently in charge of Libya’s overseas investment portfolio.
Government: Since 1977 Libya has officially been a Jamahiriya – a ‘state of the masses’ – in which all political power is devolved to a network of local and regional People’s Committees, Basic People’s Congresses and Revolutionary Committees. Muammar al-Gadhafi holds the title of Leader of the Revolution. Despite the formal structure of government, he retains an effective power of veto and, along with his colleagues in the Revolutionary Command Council (as was), keeps control over defence and foreign policy.
Copyright © 2003 Columbus Publishing Ltd.
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