Myanmar General Information Area: 676,552 sq km (261,218 sq miles). Population: 47,260,000 (1998). Population Density: 69.8 per sq km. Capital: Yangon (Rangoon). Population: 5,037,000 (official estimate 1994). GEOGRAPHY: Myanmar is a diamond-shaped country extending 925km (575 miles) from east to west and 2100km (1300 miles) from north to south. It is bounded by China, Laos and Thailand in the east, by Bangladesh and India in the north and by the Indian Ocean in the west and south. The Irrawaddy River runs through the centre of the country and fans out to form a delta on the south coast; Yangon stands beside one of its many mouths. North of the delta lies the Irrawaddy basin and central Myanmar, which is protected by a horseshoe of mountains rising to over 3000m (10,000ft), creating profound climatic effects. To the west are the Arakan, Chin and Naga mountains and the Patkai Hills; the Kachin Hills are to the north; to the east lies the Shan Plateau, which extends to the Tenasserim coastal ranges. Intensive irrigated farming is practised throughout central Myanmar, and fruit, vegetables and citrus crops thrive on the Shan Plateau, but much of the land and mountains are covered by subtropical forest. Government: Socialist Republic since 1974. Power assumed by the army in 1988. Head of State and Government: Senior General Than Shwe since 1992. Language: The official language is Myanmar (Burmese). There are over 100 dialects spoken in Myanmar. English is spoken in business circles. Religion: 87 per cent Theravada Buddhist. The remainder are Hindu, Muslim, Christian and Animist. Time: GMT + 6.5. Electricity: 220/230 volts AC, 50Hz. Communications:   Telephone IDD is available to the main cities. Country code: 95. Outgoing international code: 00. For emergencies, dial 199 (police), 191 (fire) and 192 (ambulance). There is a limited public internal service. Only larger cities can be dialled direct from within Myanmar; smaller towns still use manual switchboards and callers need to ask the operator to connect them to a specific town operator. The Central Telephone & Telegraph (CTT) office on the corner of Pansodan and Mahabandoola Streets is the only public place in the country where international telephone calls can be conveniently arranged. The office is open Mon-Fri 0800-1600 and weekends and holidays 0900-1400. Mobile telephone GSM 900 network is operated by Myanmar Posts and Telecommunications. Fees are high and coverage limited. Fax May be sent from the Central Telegraph Office on Mahabandoola Street and there are further facilities at the Post and Telecommunications Corporation in Yangon. Internet ISPs include the Ministry of Post and Telecommunication (website: www.mpt.net.mm). Set-up fees are high. Post Service to Europe takes up to a week and letter forms are quicker than ordinary letters. To ensure despatch, it is advisable to go to the post office personally to obtain a certificate of posting, for which a small fee is charged. Press The only English-language newspapers are The New Light of Myanmar and the Guardian. Myanmar Travel & Tours also publishes a tourist publication, Today, in English. Locally published magazines in English include Golden Myanmar, Myanmar Chronicle and Myanmar Perspective, which are all available from bookshops. BBC World Service and Voice of America frequencies: From time to time these change. BBC (website: www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice): MHz 15.36 9.740 6.195 3.915 Voice of America (website: www.voa.gov): MHz 17.74 11.71 9.645 6.110 Passport/Visa   Passport Required? Visa Required? Return Ticket Required? British Yes Yes No Australian Yes Yes No Canadian Yes Yes No USA Yes Yes No OtherEU Yes Yes No Japanese Yes Yes No Note: Holders of Taiwanese passports are advised to contact the Embassy prior to travelling. PASSPORTS: Passport valid for at least six months beyond date of intended departure required by all. VISAS: Required by all except: (a) transit passengers continuing their journey by the same or first connecting aircraft provided holding valid onward or return documentation and not leaving the airport. Note: A separate visa is required for each child over seven years of age even if travelling on their parent’s passport. Types of visa and cost: Tourist: £14. Business: £20. Validity: Tourist visas are valid for three months from the date of issue for stays of 28 days in Myanmar. This can be extended for an additional 14 days. Business visas are valid for three months from date of issue for stays of ten weeks, extendable up to three to 12 months on an individual basis. Application to: Consulate (or Consular section at Embassy; see Contact Addresses section) or a Myanmar travel organisation. Application requirements: Tourist visa: (a) One application form. (b) Two passport-size photos. (c) Package tour confirmation from travel agent. (d) Valid passport. (e) Fee (cash accepted if applying in person; cheque or postal order only if applying by post). (f) Self-addressed, stamped enveloped for postal applications with sufficient postage (registered post is recommended). Individual tourists: (a)-(f) and, (h) US$200 (or equivalent in other currency) which must be exchanged into local currency on arrival. Business visa: (a) Two application forms (can be photocopied). (b) Three passport-size photos. (c) Letter from sponsoring body, firm or department stating detailed reasons for the applicant’s visit and the name of the Myanmar government department, corporation or agency to be contacted; the letter must state the precise nature of the business to be conducted and indicate the financial status of the applicant. (d) Valid passport. (e) Fee (cash accepted if applying in person; cheque or postal order only if applying by post). (f) Self-addressed, stamped enveloped for postal applications with sufficient postage (registered post is recommended). Working days required: Normally Three. Temporary Residence: It is possible to get a stay permit once in Myanmar at the Immigration Department. Money Currency: Kyat (Kt) = 100 pyas. Notes are in denominations of Kt1000, 500, 200, 100 and 90 pyas. Coins are in denominations of Kt1, and 50, 25, 10, 5 and 1 pyas. Kt100,000 is known as a lakh, and Kt10 million as a crore. Kyat is pronounced like the English word ‘chat’. To combat the black market and limit the financial power of dissident groups, currency denominations are occasionally declared invalid without prior notice. Limited refunds are usually allowed for certain sectors of the population. Currency exchange: Individual tourists are required on arrival at Yangon international airport to exchange a minimum of US$200 into FECs (Foreign Exchange Certificates). Any unused foreign exchange certificates out of this amount will not be converted (though FECs in excess of US$300 can be reconverted on departure). Visitors on a package tour are not subject to this requirement, but if they wish to spend extra money in Myanmar, they can also exchange US Dollars for FECs. FECs, which are printed in China, are Myanmar’s second legal currency and are issued by the Bank of Myanmar specifically for visiting tourists. They come in denominations equivalent to US$20, 10, 5 and 1. Payment for FECs is only accepted in US Dollars. One US Dollar equals one FEC. FECs can be exchanged into Kyats at officially authorised banks, bureaux de change, hotels and Myanmar Travel and Tour offices and can be spent anywhere in the country. Cash payments can also be made in US Dollars, but only at establishments (eg, hotels, railway stations, airlines) that have an official licence allowing them to accept dollars. Wherever possible, it is advisable to change US Dollars into Kyats rather than FECs as FECs usually have a poorer exchange rate than Kyats. However, US Dollar travellers cheques can only be exchanged into FECs and not directly into Kyats unlike US Dollar cash. It is also recommended to carry small change as large notes may be difficult to change. Credit & debit cards: Visa, Diners Club, American Express, JCB and MasterCard are accepted by airlines, major hotels and supermarkets. Check with your credit or debit card company for details for merchant acceptability and other services which may be available. Travellers cheques: Accepted. To avoid additional exchange rate charges, travellers are advised to take travellers cheques in US Dollars or Pounds Sterling. Currency restrictions: The import and export of local currency is prohibited. There are no import limits on foreign currencies, but any amounts must be declared on arrival and the declaration certificate kept safe – on departure, foreign currencies are checked with the amounts declared on entry. There are regular customs checks at Yangon airport, aimed at curbing black-market activities; this makes it essential to keep all receipts in order to account for money spent while in the country. Exchange rate indicators The following figures are included as a guide to the movements of the Kyat against Sterling and the US Dollar: Date May ’02 Aug ’02 Nov ’02 Feb ’03 £1.00 = 9.71 9.73 10.11 9.95 $1.00 = 6.66 6.39 6.39 6.25 Banking hours: Mon-Fri 1000-1400. Duty Free The following goods may be taken into Myanmar by persons over 17 years of age without incurring customs duty: 200 cigarettes or 50 cigars or 250g tobacco; 2l of alcohol; 0.5l of perfume or eau de cologne. Prohibited and restricted items: Playing cards, gambling equipment, antiques, archaeological items and pornography are prohibited. Jewellery, electrical goods and cameras must be declared; failure to do so may result in visitors being refused permission to export it on departure. Video cameras will be held in safe custody at the airport and will be returned on departure. Note: All gems, jewellery and silverware purchased from authorised shops can be taken out of the country. Public Holidays Jan Kayin New Year. Jan 4 2003 Independence Day. Feb 12 Union Day/Eid Al Adha (Feast of the Sacrifice). Mar 2 Peasants’ Day (anniversary of the 1962 coup). Mar 18 Full Moon of Tabaung. Mar 27 Armed Forces Day. Apr 13-16 Maha Thingyan (Water Festival). Apr 17 Myanmar New Year. May 1 May Day. May 16 Full Moon of Kason. Jul 13 Full Moon of Waso (Beginning of Buddhist Lent). Jul 19 Martyrs’ Day. Oct 10 Full Moon of Thadingyut (End of Buddhist Lent). Oct 25 Deepavali. Nov 8 Tazaungmon Full Moon Day. Nov 18 National Day. Dec 25 Christmas Day. Dec/Jan Kayin New Year. Jan 4 2004 Independence Day. Feb 2 Eid Al Adha (Feast of the Sacrifice). Feb 12 Union Day. Mar 2 Peasants’ Day (anniversary of the 1962 coup). Mar 6 Full Moon of Tabaung. Mar 27 Armed Forces Day. Apr 13-16 Maha Thingyan (Water Festival). Apr 17 Myanmar New Year. May 1 May Day. May 6 Full Moon of Kasone. Jul 2 Full Moon of Waso (Beginning of Buddhist Lent). Jul 19 Martyrs’ Day. Oct 27 Full Moon of Thadingyut (End of Buddhist Lent). Nov 12 Deepavali. Nov 26 Tazaungmon Full Moon Day. Dec 6 National Day. Dec 25 Christmas Day. Dec/Jan Kayin New Year. Note: Buddhist holidays are determined according to lunar sightings, and dates given here are approximations only. Other festivals celebrated by minorities include the Hindu Devali festival in November; Islamic observance of Bakri Idd in late November; Christmas and Easter; and the Karen New Year in early January. For further information, contact the Embassy (see Contact Addresses section) or see the World of Buddhism appendix. Health   Special Precautions Certificate Required Yellow Fever Yes 1 Cholera Yes 2 Typhoid and Polio 3 N/A Malaria 4 N/A 1: A yellow fever vaccination certificate is required from all travellers arriving from infected areas. Nationals and residents of Myanmar are required to possess certificates of vaccination on their departure to an infected area. 2: Following WHO guidelines issued in 1973, a cholera vaccination certificate is no longer a condition of entry to Myanmar. However, cholera is a serious risk in this country and precautions are essential. Up-to-date advice should be sought before deciding whether these precautions should include vaccination, as medical opinion is divided over its effectiveness. For more information, see the Health appendix. 3: Immunisation aginast typhoid and poliomyelitis is strongly advised. 4: Malaria risk (predominantly in the malignant falciparum form) exists below 1000m (3281ft) in the following areas: (a) throughout the year in Karen State; (b) from March to December in Chin, Kachin, Kayah, Mon, Rakhine and Shan States, in Pegu Division, and in Hlegu, Hmawbi and Taikkyi townships of Yangon; (c) from April to December in rural areas of Tenasserim Division; (d) from May to December in rural areas of Mandalay Division; (e) from June to November in rural areas of Magwe Division and in Sagaing Division. The falciparum strain is reported to be highly resistant to chloroquine and resistant to sulfadoxine/pyrimethamine. Food & drink: All water should be regarded as being potentially contaminated. Water used for drinking, brushing teeth or making ice should have first been boiled or otherwise sterilised. Milk is unpasteurised and should be boiled. Powdered or tinned milk is available and is advised, but make sure that it is reconstituted with pure water. Avoid dairy products which are likely to have been made from unboiled milk. Only eat well-cooked meat and fish, preferably served hot. Pork, salad and mayonnaise may carry increased risk. Vegetables should be cooked and fruit peeled. Other risks: Diarrhoea and amoebic and bacillery dysentery and typhoid fever are all common. Japanese encephalitis may be caught via mosquito bites, particularly in rural areas between June and October. A vaccine is available, and travellers are advised to consult their doctor prior to departure. Filariasis and dengue fever are also present. Trachoma is present. Hepatitis A, B and E are present. Rabies is present. For those at high risk, vaccination before arrival should be considered. If you are bitten, seek medical advice without delay. For more information, see the Health appendix. The WHO advises that foci of plague are present in Myanmar. Further information should be sought from the Department of Health or from any of the hospitals specialising in tropical diseases listed in the Health appendix. Health care: Health insurance is strongly recommended. There are hospitals and clinics in cities and larger towns, and regional health centres in outlying areas. It is advisable to carry a remedy against minor enteric upsets. Travel - International AIR: Myanmar’s national airline is Myanmar Airways International (UB). Yangon has direct air links with Bangkok, Singapore, Jakarta, Bangladesh, Calcutta, Kunming and Moscow. Airlines serving Myanmar include Air China, Air France, All Nippon Airways, Austrian Airlines, Bangladesh Airlines, Indian Airlines, Lufthansa, Malaysian Airlines, Silk Air and Thai Airways International. International airports: Yangon (RGN) is 19km (12 miles) from the city. Airport facilities include restaurant, bar, snack bar, bank, post office, duty-free shop and tourist information. Buses go to the city (travel time – 30 minutes). Taxis are also available (travel time – 45 minutes). Departure tax: US$10, payable also in FECs (Foreign Exchange Certificates; see also Money section for details). Passengers in direct transit are exempt. SEA: Cruise ships call at Yangon Port. ROAD: Overland entry with a border pass is, in theory, permitted at the following border check points: Kyukoke, Namkhan and Muse on the Myanmar-Yunnan (People’s Republic of China) border; and Tachileik, Myawaddy and Kawthaung on the Mynamar-Thailand border. Generally speaking, however, foreigners are only allowed to travel as part of an organised group. Owing to continuing political instability, borders may periodically close. Contact the nearest Embassy for up-to-date details. Note: It is recommended to use only air travel as a means of access into Myanmar. Travel - Internal AIR: Air travel is the most efficient way of moving within Myanmar and the only permissable means of transport for independent travellers, but there is a rather limited schedule of flights, and a rather less than perfect safety record. Air Mandalay and Air Yangon operate internal flights. Internal security can restrict ease of movement. There are daily flights to most towns; charter flights are also available. There are over 60 airstrips in the country. For tickets and information, contact Myanmar Travel and Tours (see Contact Addresses section). Internal flight times: From Yangon to Mandalay is 2 hours 10 minutes; to Pagan is 1 hour 30 minutes; and to Heho is 1 hour 25 minutes. SEA/RIVER: The best way of seeing Myanmar is by boat, particularly between Bhamo–Mandalay and Mandalay–Pagan. Myanmar has about 8000km (5000 miles) of navigable rivers. Trips can only be arranged as part of an organised tour group. It is generally necessary to provide one’s own food. RAIL: Myanmar Railways provide services on several routes, the principal line being Yangon to Mandalay (travel time – 12-14 hours). Overnight trains have sleeping cars. There is also a good service from Mandalay–Lashio–Myitkyina. The state-run railway has 4300km (2700 miles) of track and serves most of Myanmar. First class is available but, with the exception of the Yangon to Mandalay line, services are regularly afflicted with delays caused by climatic, technical and bureaucratic difficulties. Tickets must be purchased through Myanmar Travel and Tours as part of an organised tour group. There are regular services from Yangon to Mandalay and from Yangon to Thazi. ROAD: Traffic drives on the right. There has been some modernisation of Myanmar’s once antiquated vehicles. Bus: Buses are generally operated by the state-owned Road Transport Enterprise. Public bus services tend to be unreliable and uncomfortable; visitors may pay using the Kyat currency on certain lines only. Owing to the ongoing privatisation programme of the transport industry, a fleet of privately operated buses is also available. The main lines are from Yangon to Meiktila, Pyay, Mandalay and Taunggyi. Private buses are air conditioned and accept payment in Kyat, US Dollars or FECs. Bicycles are available for hire. Documentation: An International Driving Permit is required. This must be presented to the police, who will endorse it or issue a visitor’s licence. URBAN: Yangon has a circular rail service. There are also antiquated and overcrowded bus services in all cities. Yangon has blue government taxis with set fares. Unmetered three- and four-wheel taxis are available in cities, as are rickshaws; it is wise to pre-arrange fares. Accommodation Since the privatisation of the hotel industry in 1993, a large number of new hotels and guest-houses have been completed or are under construction, particularly in Yangon. Advance booking is advisable, particularly from November to March. There are also hotels at the resorts of Sandoway, Taunggyi and Pagan. For further details, contact Myanmar Travel and Tour (see Contact Addresses section). Grading: An increasing number of hotels are divided into three categories: luxury, first class and lower. INNS: These are another option for visitors. Although reserved for state officials in many towns, inns will often accommodate travellers who have been granted official permission. Visitors travelling away from the normal tourist routes should carry sleeping bags or blankets, as pagodas, temples and monasteries will usually only accommodate visitors for a night or two. Introduction Tourist numbers are rising steadily. Certain areas in Upper and Lower Myanmar are currently out of bounds owing to the past civil war – check with the Embassy or Consulate for the latest information. Tourists should also be aware that foreign nationals are liable to arrest or imprisonment if they criticise the regime in public. Most coastal resorts have now been opened to tourists and Sunday round-trip flights are arranged by Myanmar Travel and Tour to Napali and Sandoway beaches during the dry season. For the purposes of this guide, Myanmar has been divided into three sections: The South (including Yangon); Central Myanmar (including Pagan and Mandalay); The East and The Northwest. The South YANGON: Yangon (or Rangoon), the capital, is a city of Buddhist temples, open-air markets, food stalls and ill-repaired colonial architecture. It has a population of over two million. Although most of the city has been built in the last hundred years, and although it suffered considerable damage during World War II, there are still several examples of a more ancient culture. These include the golden Shwedragon Pagoda, one of the most spectacular Buddhist shrines in Asia and reputedly 2500 years old (although rebuilt in 1769); the Sule Pagoda, also over 2000 years old; the Botataung Pagoda, hollow inside with a mirrored maze; and the Maha Pasan Guha or ‘Great Cave’. Excursions: Outside the capital, places worth visiting include the Naga-Yone enclosure near Myinkaba, with a Buddha figure entwined and protected by a huge cobra – a combination of Buddhism and Brahman astrology; Kyaik Tyo and its ‘Golden Rock Pagoda’, a 5.5m (18ft) shrine built on a gold-plated boulder atop a cliff; and Pegu, founded in 1573, with its golden Shwemawdaw Pagoda and market. Just northeast of Pegu is the Shwethalyaung Buddha, revered as one of the most beautiful and lifelike of reclining Buddhas, which was lost and totally overgrown by jungle after the destruction of Pegu in 1757. It was rediscovered in the British era, during the construction of the railway line. Central Myanmar PAGAN: Pagan is one of the greatest historical areas in the country. It is best seen at sunrise or sunset. More than 13,000 pagodas were once spread over this dry plain during the golden age of the 11 great kings (roughly 1044-1287); this came to an end with the threat of invasion by Kublai Khan from China, and this extraordinary area was abandoned. Now there are fewer than 3000 pagodas. The actual village of Pagan has a museum, market and places to eat and stay; within walking distance of Bagan, there are lacquerware workshops and an attractive temple. There are dozens of open temples in the Pagan area (about 40 sq km/15 sq miles), but places of special interest include the Shwegugyi Temple, built in 1311 and noted for its fine stucco carvings; the Gawdawpalin Temple, badly damaged in the 1975 earthquake, but still one of the most impressive of the Pagan temples; and the Thatbyinnyu Temple, which is the highest in Bagan. MANDALAY: This old royal city is rich in palaces, stupas, temples and pagodas (although the city has suffered several bad fires which have destroyed some buildings), and is the main centre of Buddhism and Burmese arts. There are some excellent craft markets and there are thriving stone-carving workshops and gold-leaf industries. Taking its name from Mandalay Hill (rising about 240m/787ft to the northeast of the palace), the city was founded by King Mindon in 1857, the old wooden palace buildings at Amarapura being moved and reconstructed. Sights of interest include the huge Shweyattaw Buddha, close to the hill, with its outstretched finger pointing towards the city; the Eindawya Pagoda, built in 1847 and covered in gold leaf; the Shwekyimyint Pagoda containing the original Buddha image consecrated by Prince Minshinzaw during the Pagan period; and the Mahumuni Pagoda or ‘Great Pagoda’, housing the famous and revered Mahumuni image. Covered in gold leaf over the years by devout Buddhists, this image was brought from Arakan in 1784, although it is thought to be much older. The base, moat and huge walls are virtually all that remain of the once stupendous Mandalay Palace, which was an immense walled city (mostly of timber construction) rather than a palace. It was burnt down in 1942. A large-scale model gives an indication of what it must have been like. The Shwenandaw Kyaung Monastery was at one time part of the palace complex and was used as an apartment by King Mindon and his chief queen. Like the palace, the wooden building was once beautifully gilded. There are some extraordinary carved panels inside and also a photograph of the Atumashi Kyaung Monastery, destroyed by fire in 1890. The ruins can be seen to the south of the Kuthodaw Pagoda, called ‘the world’s biggest book’ because of the 729 marble slabs that surround the central pagoda – they are inscribed with the entire Buddhist canon. Excursions: The area around Mandalay contains several older, abandoned capital cities. Sagaing is easily accessible to the visitor, and contains interesting pagodas at Tupayon, Aungmyelawka and Kaunghmudaw. Sagaing was for a time the capital of an independent Shan Kingdom. In the 15th century, Ava was chosen as the kingdom’s new capital and it remained so until well into the 19th century, when the kingdom vanished; the old city walls can still be traced. Mingun (a pleasant river trip from Mandalay) possesses the famous Mingun Bell, supposedly the largest uncracked, hung bell in the world. It was cast in 1790 by King Bodawpaya to be hung in his giant pagoda, which was never finished, due to the king’s death in 1819. The base of the pagoda alone is about 50m (165ft) high. Amarapura, south of Mandalay, was founded by Bodawpaya in 1783 and the city is famous for its cotton and silk weaving. The East & the Northwest This region of the country offers the visitor opportunities for walking and rock-climbing, and the various hill stations, such as Kalaw, provide a pine-forested escape from the heat and humidity of Yangon. The caves and lake at Pindaya are famous; the caves contain thousands of Buddha images. Near the village of Yengan are the Padah-Lin Caves, containing prehistoric paintings. Inlay Lake on the Shan Plateau is famous for its floating gardens and leg-rowing fishermen. Maymyo is a charming British hill station further north, with attractive waterfalls and a pleasant climate because of its high altitude. Difficult communications usually prevent tourists from visiting the largely tribal Northwest. Many of Myanmar’s minority peoples live here. Sport & Activities Traditional sports: The national game is Chinglone; its object is to keep a cane ball in the air for as long as possible using only feet and knees with teams of six players. Burmese boxing is another popular sport; it can appear extremely vicious to the uninitiated spectator. Many Western sports are also played. A large number of Buddhist festivals are held annually in Myanmar and provide an interesting way for visitors to experience local traditions and culture (see also Special Events in the Social Profile section). For serious practitioners, there are several centres for the study and practice of Theravada Buddhism, the most famous of which is the Mahasi Meditation Centre in Yangon. The centre was founded in 1947 by Mahasi Sayadaw, one of Myanmar’s greatest meditation teachers. Visitors wishing to participate in Buddhist retreats need to obtain a special, long-stay entry visa (allowing stays of up to 12 weeks). The application procedure takes up to ten weeks. For further details about the necessary application requirements, contact the Embassy or Consular section at the Embassy (see Contact Addresses section). Visitors can also attend performances of Myanmar’s traditional popular theatre, known as pwe (or show). Performances take place in a variety of contexts, including religious festivals, weddings, sporting events or even funerals, and sometimes last for an entire night. Of further interest are performances of traditional dance forms (nat pwes), which pay homage to the spirit world, or marionette theatre (yok-thei pwe), widely practised during the late-18th century in Mandalay and one of the most characteristic forms of national cultural expression. Ecotourism: This is encouraged by Myanmar Travels and Tours and there are a number of national parks and wildlife sanctuaries which also offer trekking and safaris. The best parks are the Alaungdaw Kathapa National Park (located northwest of Monywa); Hlawga National Park (near Yangon, good for birdwatching); Popa Mountain Park (extinct volcano covered in forests in the desert area of central Myanmar); Lampi Island (Myeik Archipelago) (which can be reached by boat trips from Myeik and Kawthaung); and Shwesettaw Wildlife Sanctuary (located in Minbu). Other: Swimming and other types of watersports are possible on the following beaches: Kanthaya Beach (located on the Rakhine coast); Maung-ma-gan Beach (located on the Taninthayi coast in the south and reached from Dawei); Ngapali Beach (located on the Rakhine coast); and Chaung-tha Beach (located west of Pathein). Football can be seen at Aung San Stadium in Yangon and on small fields throughout the country. Social Profile Food & Drink: The regional food is hot and spicy. Fish, rice, noodles and vegetables spiced with onions, ginger, garlic and chillies are the common local ingredients. Local dishes include lethok son (a sort of spicy vegetarian rice salad), mohinga (fish soup with noodles) and oh-no khauk swe (rice noodles, chicken and coconut milk). The avocados by Inle Lake are very good. Delicious fruits are available in the markets and food stalls appear on the corners of most large towns. Chinese and Indian cuisine is offered in many hotels and restaurants. Tea is a popular drink; the spices which are added to it can make the tongue turn bright red. Locally produced soft drinks are generally of poor quality and rather expensive. Coffee is not common. Locally produced beer, rum, whisky and gin are generally available. Nightlife: Western-style nightlife is almost non existent, although there are occasional performances in Yangon’s three theatres as well as a number of rock and pop groups gaining in popularity. Cinemas are popular and seven of Yangon’s 50 cinemas regularly show English-language films. Shopping: Souvenirs include handicrafts and jewellery. In Yangon, a good place to shop is Bogyoke Aung San Market which sells luxury items, handicrafts, food stuffs, clothing, jewellery and consumer goods. It is open from 0800-1800 (except Sunday and public holidays) but the best time to visit is around 1000. Mandalay is a good place for traditional handicrafts which can be purchased at Zegyo Market. Phatahe Bazaar sells Buddhist articles of worship. Shopping hours: Mon-Sun 0800-2200. Special Events: The Buddhist calendar is full of festivals, many timed to coincide with the full moon. Any visitor would be unlucky not to be able to enjoy at least one during their stay. The Myanmar New Year, Maha Thingyan, takes place in mid-April and celebrations last for at least three days. Two other major festivals are Thadingyut, at the October full moon, and Tazaungdaing, in early November. The Buddhist Lent (July to October) is marked by three months’ fasting and other religious observances. Other events are: the annual Gems Emporium in February; the Cultural Performances Festival in March; the International Machinery Expo in May and the Trade Fair in Sept/Oct. Social Conventions: Handshaking is the normal form of greeting. Full names are used, preceded by U (pronounced oo) in the case of an older or well-respected man’s name, Aung for younger men and Ko for adult males; a woman’s name is preceded by Daw. Courtesy and respect for tradition and religion is expected; for instance, shoes and socks must be removed before entering any religious building and it is customary to remove shoes before entering a traditional home (in most modern residences this is no longer observed except in bedrooms). When sitting, avoid displaying the soles of the feet, as this is considered offensive. Small presents are acceptable and appreciated, although never expected. Shorts and mini-skirts should not be worn. Tipping: It is usual to give five to ten per cent on hotel and restaurant bills. Taxi drivers do not expect a tip. Business Profile Economy: The largest single sector of Myanmar’s economy is agriculture, mainly livestock and fishing, but it continues to rely on traditional non-mechanised methods. Rice, generally the principal export earner, has diminished in importance in line with the continually depressed state of the world market in the commodity. Teak wood is the country’s other main export (much of it felled and traded illegally). Other crops include oil seeds, sugar cane, cotton, jute and rubber. Myanmar has significant deposits of tin, copper, zinc, gemstones, silver and coal: commercial exploitation has recently begun. Although Myanmar’s oil production, never substantial, has been falling during the last ten years, there are thought to be large untapped reserves of both oil and gas inland. Domestically produced gas meets about half of the country’s energy needs; hydroelectric power covers most of the rest. A wide range of manufactured goods is assembled locally but the majority are imported. Otherwise, Myanmar’s industrial sector is mostly concerned with processing domestically produced raw materials. Other significant sources of revenue are opium trafficking and gemstone mining, both of which are largely controlled by the military government and have been mainly used to finance substantial arms purchases. After years of political isolation, Myanmar became a member of ASEAN in July 1997. The Government has tried to attract foreign investment by relaxing its previous tight controls over commercial activity. However, many potential investors are deterred by the Government’s appalling human rights record and the prospect of widespread international opprobrium. Myanmar’s economic future depends largely on political developments. Business: Lightweight suits are recommended during the day; jackets needed for top-level meetings. Most commercial business transactions will be conducted in English. Business cards in Burmese script can be useful. The best time to visit is October to February. Office hours: Mon-Fri 0930-1630. Commercial Information: There are over 20 Government Corporations dealing with all aspects of business. The Inspection and Agency Corporation in Yangon promotes business with foreign companies. For further information, contact the commercial section of the Embassy (see Contact Addresses section). Climate A monsoon climate with three main seasons. The hottest period is between February and May, with little or no rain. Rainy season exists from May to October and dry, cooler weather from October to February. Required clothing: Lightweight cottons and linens throughout most of the year are required. A light raincoat or umbrella is needed during the rainy season. Warmer clothes are advised for coolest period and some evenings. History and Government History: Previously known (and sometimes still referred to) as Burma, the area was populated through three waves of migration: by the Hmon people from what is now Cambodia, then by Mongol people from the eastern Himalayas and finally by Thais from northern Thailand. Unifying these disparate groups was a formidable task, first achieved by the Buddhist King Anawratha, to form the heart of a powerful Kingdom established during the ninth century. It lasted 200 years and was succeeded by the less stable Kingdom of Bagan. In 1287, Pagan collapsed before the invading Mongols, led by Genghis Khan’s grandson Kublai Khan. Following the demise of the Mongol empire at the end of the 14th century, Burma was carved up between warring tribes, with Siam (Thailand) the dominant force in the region, until the Tanugoo dynasty defeated Siam and reunified the country in the mid-16th century. By the mid-18th century, a new dynasty had been established under King Alaungpaya with its capital in Yangon but the country once again disintegrated as the Hmon tribes broke away to create their own kingdoms. In 1824, the British, driven by imperial ambitions and goaded by repeated border clashes, annexed Burma as part of British India. In 1937 it was granted separate dominion status. During World War II, the Japanese expelled the British from Burma and attempted to co-opt Burmese political support by offering nominal independence under Japanese control. The opposition to the Japanese, who were defeated in 1944, was the nucleus of the post-war independence movement led by Aung San. A highly revered figure in present-day Myanmar, Aung San guided the country to independence in 1948 but was assassinated the same year. A military coup in 1962 brought to power Ne Win, who renamed the country Socialist Republic of the Union of Burma and imposed an idiosyncratic totalitarian dictatorship. In 1988, after years of bizarre policies, isolationism and chronic economic mismanagement by the then Burma Socialist Programme Party finally brought on a popular uprising, with students and Buddhist monks to the fore. In September that year, the military stepped in. The demonstrations were brutally suppressed and the political upheaval brought to a halt. Far from threatening it, the putsch strengthened the position of Ne Win; the leader of the coup, General Saw Maung, and his senior staff were all known to be long-standing supporters of the reclusive dictator. Although Ne Win relinquished his official title as leader of the nation, he continued to exercise considerable influence over the running of the country. Ex-army General Tin Oo and the Western-educated liberal Aung Sang Suu Kyi, daughter of Aung San, led the principal internal opposition. After crushing domestic political opposition, the Ne Win junta concluded in 1989 that some political concessions were essential (mostly to assuage international opinion) and announced that elections would be held. The main opposition movements campaigned under the banner of the National League for Democracy, led by Aung San Suu Kyi, and won the election, which was held in May 1990, taking 80 per cent of the seats in the National Assembly. However, the regime used elaborate delaying tactics and harassment of opposition leaders to hold onto power; Suu Kyi herself was put under house arrest and remained there for five years. The regime also faced several border insurgencies: the most effective of these was waged by the Karen tribe in the eastern part of the country, who were pursuing full independence and whose ranks periodically swelled by dissident students fleeing from the capital. However, by the end of the 1990s, the struggles of the Karen and the others had been quelled – or at least reduced to manageable levels – through a combination of force and negotiation. During the early 1990s, the regime, which now styled itself the State Law and Order Restoration Council (SLORC), had become an international pariah. However, as the decade progressed, changes in the regime brought to the fore the ex-intelligence chief Khin Nyunt as the new SLORC strongman. A more astute figure than the ageing and increasingly demented Ne Win, he re-armed and shored up the Yangon regime by developing vital sources of revenue from logging, gem deposits and drug trafficking. In July 1997, Myanmar was admitted to full membership of the Association of South-East Asian Nations (ASEAN), thereby gaining an important degree of international legitimacy. Moreover, ASEAN policy stresses strict non-interference in the internal affairs of member states. SLORC’s decision in November 1997 to rename itself as the more media-friendly State Peace and Development Council was, perhaps, an indication of its confidence. In September 2000, Aung San Suu Kyi was once again put under house arrest. But with the economy once again in serious difficulties and Myanmar largely isolated from the rest of the world, the junta was forced to negotiate with her. She was released, without conditions, in May 2002. The National League for Democracy, meanwhile, has been treated with more tolerance than before. Government: A constituent assembly was elected in 1990 but is devoid of effective powers, all of which are held by the State Peace and Development Council (formerly the State law and Order restoration Committee, SLORC). Copyright © 2003 Columbus Publishing Ltd.