Mongolia General Information Area: 1,564,116 sq km (603,909 sq miles). Population: 2,381,500 (2000). Population Density: 1.5 per sq km. Capital: Ulaanbaatar. Population: 691,000 (1999). GEOGRAPHY: Mongolia has a 3485km (2165-mile) border with the Russian Federation in the north and a 4670km (2902-mile) border with China in the south. From north to south, it can be divided into four areas: mountain-forest steppe, mountain steppe and, in the extreme south, semi-desert and desert (the latter being about three per cent of the entire territory). The majority of the country has a high elevation, with the principal mountains concentrated in the west. The highest point is the peak of Tavan Bogd, in the Altai Mountains, at 4374m (14,350ft) high. The lowest point, Khukh Nuur lake, in the east, lies at 560m (1820ft). There are several hundred lakes in the country and numerous rivers, of which the Orkhon is the longest at 1124km (698 miles). Government: Republic. Declared independence from China in 1921. Head of State: President Natsagiyn Bagabandi since 2001. Head of Government: Prime Minister Nambar Enkhbayar since 2000. Language: Khalkh Mongolian is the official language. Kazakh is spoken by five per cent of the population. There are also many Mongolian dialects. Religion: Buddhist Lamaism is the main religion. Time: GMT + 8 (Bayan Ulgii, Uvs & Khovd Aimags in western Mongolia GMT + 7). Electricity: 220 volts AC, 50Hz. Telephone An Asiasat Earth station has provided international telecommunications with Mongolia since 1994. Country code: 976. Area codes: Ulaanbaatar: 11, Darkhan: 01-372, Erdenet: 01-352, Khovd: 01-432. International calls can be made from telephone exchanges in Ulaanbaatar. Mobile telephone GSM 900 network operated by Mobicom (website: www.mobicom.mn) covers Altanbulag, Arvaikheer (Uvurkhangai), Darkhan, Erdenet, Nalaikh, Sainshand (Dornogobi), Selenge, Ulaanbaatar, Zamyn-Uud and Zuunkharaa. CDMA network operated by Skytel Company covers Bulgan, Darkhan, Selenge, Ulaanbaatar, Uvurkhangai and Zamyn-Uud. Fax Service available at hotels and in the central post office. Internet Access is available in Ulaanbaatar at business centres (often located in hotels), Internet cafes and at the telephone exchange on Suhkbaatar Square. ISPs include MagicNet (website: www.magicnet.mn), Micom (website: www.micom.com) and Bodicomputers (website: www.mongolnet.mn). Post Airmail abroad can be very slow. There is an express mail service available for a limited number of countries. Press The main newspapers include Udriin Sonin, Unuudur, and Zasgiyn Gazryn Medee. The English-language papers published in Mongolia include The Mongol Messenger and The UB Post , both of which are published weekly. BBC World Service and Voice of America frequencies: From time to time these change. BBC (website: www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice): MHz 15.28 11.95 9.740 6.195 Voice of America (website: www.voa.gov): MHz 17.74 11.71 9.645 6.110 Passport/Visa   Passport Required? Visa Required? Return Ticket Required? British Yes Yes No Australian Yes Yes No Canadian Yes Yes No USA Yes 1 No OtherEU Yes Yes No Japanese Yes Yes No PASSPORTS: Passport valid for at least six months required by all. VISAS: Required by all except the following: (a) nationals of Poland and Kazakhstan for up to three months; (b) nationals of Malaysia and Israel for up to one month; (c) 1. nationals of the USA, if entering the country as a tourist, for stays of up to three years; (d) nationals of the Philippines for up to 21 days; (e) nationals of Hong Kong and Singapore for up to 14 days. Note: (a) Nationals of India need a visa but can obtain one free of charge. (b) This information should be used as a guide only since, depending on the purpose of visit and the type of passport held, visas and/or letters of invitation may be required. The Mongolian Embassy or Mongolian National Tourism Board can provide accurate and up-to-date information (see Contact Addresses section). Types of visa and cost: Business and Ordinary: Single-entry/Exit (for visits of up to one month): £30. Single-entry (for visits over one month and less than six months): £25. Multiple-entry/Exit (for visits of up to six months): £60. Single-transit: £25. Double-transit: £30. Multiple-transit: £35. Note: (a) Multiple-entry visas require an invitation. (b) Single-entry and multiple-entry visas must be applied for in advance from the Department of Visa and Passport of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Mongolia. Validity: Visas are generally valid for 30 days from date of entry (and three months from date of issue) and can be extended in Mongolia by a maximum of 30 days. Application to: Consulate (or Consular section at Embassy); see Contact Addresses section. If travelling on an organised tour, visas can be obtained through tourism companies or travel agencies. A group visa in the name of the tour leader is valid for all tourists on the list attached, providing relevant details (nationality, sex, date of birth, passport numbers, and dates of issue and expiry) are given at the time of application. Independent travel is now possible for some nationals (including US nationals and nationals of EU countries); however some nationals will still require an official invitation. For details of status, contact the Embassy (see Contact Addresses section). Note: All foreign nationals staying in Mongolia for longer than 30 days are required to register with the police within ten days of arrival. Application requirements: (a) Valid passport. (b) Application form. (c) One passport-size photo. (d) Some nationals will require confirmation and approval for the intended visit from the appropriate travel company or business organisation. (e) Fee (payable by cash or cheque). There is an additional £5 fee for postal applications. (f) Registered, stamped and self-addressed envelope for postal applications. Working days required: One to five. An express service is available which costs an additional £10. Temporary residence/work permit: Enquire at the Mongolian Embassy. Money Currency: Tugrug (Tg). Notes are in denominations of Tg10,000, 5000, 1000, 500, 100, 50, 20, 10, 5, 3 and 1. Coins are in denominations of Tg200, 100, 50 and 20. Currency exchange: Official organisations authorised to exchange foreign currency include commercial banks in Ulaanbaatar and bureaux de change at certain hotels. The easiest currency to exchange is the US Dollar. Credit & debit cards: Accepted by main commercial banks, large hotels and a few shops and restaurants in Ulaanbaatar. Credit card cash advances can be obtained at the Trade and Development Bank. Travellers cheques: American Express Travellers Cheques are most widely accepted although Thomas Cook are accepted by the Trade and Development Bank. To avoid additional exchange rate charges, travellers are advised to take travellers cheques in US Dollars. Travellers cheques can be difficult to exchange outside the capital. Currency restrictions: The import of local currency is limited to Tg815, provided declared on arrival. Bank certificates must be shown. The import of foreign currency is limited to US$2000 or equivalent. The export of local and foreign currency is limited to the amount declared on arrival. Exchange rate indicators The following figures are included as a guide to the movements of the Tugrug against Sterling and the US Dollar: Date May ’02 Aug ’02 Nov ’02 Feb ’03 £1.00= 1607.40 1683.64 1775.91 1792.87 $1.00= 1103.00 1107.00 1123.00 1126.00 Banking hours: Mon-Fri 0930-1230 and 1400-1500. Duty Free The following goods may be imported into Mongolia without incurring customs duty: 200 cigarettes or 50 cigars or 250g of tobacco; 1l of vodka and 2l of wine and 3l of beer; a reasonable amount of perfume. Prohibited items: Guns, weapons and ammunition without special permission; explosive items; radioactive substances; narcotics; pornographic publications; any publications, records, films and drawings critical of Mongolia; palaeontological and archaeological findings without special permission; collections of various plants and their seeds; birds and wild or domestic animals; wool, raw skins, hides and furs without permission from the appropriate authorities. Note: (a) Every tourist must fill in a customs declaration, which should be retained until departure. This allows for the free import and re-export of articles intended for personal use for the duration of stay. (b) Visitors intending to export antiques and fossils must have official permission. Some shops will supply the necessary documents upon purchase; otherwise, permission should be obtained from the Ministry of Enlightenment. (c) Goods to the value of Tg20,000 are allowed to be exported from Mongolia. Public Holidays Jan 1 2003 New Year’s Day. Feb 1-3 Tsagaan Sar (Lunar New Year). Jun 2 Mothers and Children’s Day. Jul 11-13 Naadam. Nov 26 Independence Day. Jan 1 2004 New Year’s Day. Jan 22-24 Tsagaan Sar (Lunar New Year). Jun 1 Mothers and Children’s Day. Jul 11-13 Naadam. Nov 26 Independence Day. Health   Special Precautions Certificate Required Yellow Fever No No Cholera 1 No Typhoid and Polio 2 N/A Malaria No N/A 1: There may be some risk of cholera; precautions should be considered. 2: Typhoid is a risk. Food & drink: All water should be regarded as being potentially contaminated. Water used for drinking, brushing teeth or making ice should have first been boiled or otherwise sterilised. Some milk is unpasteurised and should be boiled. Powdered, long-life or tinned milk is available and is advised, but make sure that it is reconstituted with pure water. Avoid dairy products which are likely to have been made from unboiled milk. Only eat well-cooked meat and fish, preferably served hot. Pork, salad and mayonnaise may carry increased risk. Vegetables should be cooked and fruit peeled. Other risks: Diarrhoeal diseases and outbreaks of meningococcal meningitis occur. There is some risk of plague. Immunisation against Hepatitis A and TB is recommended. Hepatitis B is highly endemic and Hepatitis C also occurs. Rabies is present. For those at high risk, vaccination before arrival should be considered. If you are bitten, seek medical advice without delay. For more information, see the Health appendix. Health care: There are almost 23,000 hospital beds and over 5000 doctors in Mongolia. However, health-care facilities available to foreigners are limited. All Mongolian hospitals are very short of most medical supplies, including basic care items, drugs and spare parts for medical equipment. Reciprocal agreements with the UK or USA are not available and US medical insurance is not valid in Mongolia. Doctors and hospitals expect immediate cash payment for health services. Visitors are urged to have health insurance including cover for evacuation to Hong Kong and to take with them any regular medication. Emergency care is available at the Russian Hospital, although a translator is essential. Travel - International AIR: Mongolia’s national airline, MIAT – Mongolian International Air Transport (OM), operates flights to Ulaanbaatar from Berlin, Moscow, Beijing and Seoul all year round, and to and from Osaka and Hong Kong in the summer months. Other airlines serving Mongolia include Aeroflot, Korean Air and Air China. Approximate flight times: To Ulaanbaatar from London is 14 hours including stopovers. International airports: Ulaanbaatar (ULN) (Buyant Ukhaa) is 15km (9 miles) from the city. Buses run to the city centre (travel time – 30 minutes). Taxis are also available (travel time – 15 minutes). Airport facilities include a bank, duty-free shops, car hire, post office and a restaurant. Departure tax: US$12. RAIL: Ulaanbaatar is linked to the Russian Federation and China by the Trans-Mongolian Railway. An express train runs once a week between Moscow, Ulaanbaatar and Beijing. Trains on international routes have sleeping and restaurant cars. There are also other weekly trains from Ulaanbaatar to Beijing and Ulaanbaatar to Moscow. Note: At present, there are problems reported on buying train tickets to Ulaanbaatar for the Trans-Mongolia train. Although the trains certainly stop in Ulaanbaatar, tickets are only being sold to Chinese or Russian destinations. Therefore, a passenger wishing to travel from Beijing to Ulaanbaatar will have to pay for a ticket to Ulaan Ude, just over the Russian border. The other trains between Moscow and Ulaanbaatar, and Beijing and Ulaanbaatar are unaffected. ROAD: There are several international road links; the principal route is via Irkutsk (East Siberia) to Ulaanbaatar. Travellers are not normally allowed to enter Mongolia by road unless they obtain prior permission from the Mongolian authorities. Travel - Internal AIR: Internal flights are operated by MIAT – Mongolian International Air Transport (OM). This is the recommended means of travelling to remote areas. RAIL: There are 1815km (1127 miles) of track. The main line runs from north to south: Sukhbaatar–Darkhan–Ulaanbaatar–Sainshand. Branch lines serve the principal industrial regions. ROAD: Paved roads are to be found only in or near major cities. Bus: There are frequent bus services between major towns, but the roads are mostly unpaved. Car hire: Available through tourism companies (although self drive is not available since most roads are unpaved, maps are poor and there are no road signs). Jeeps, camels or horses are available for hunters, trekkers and special-interest travellers. URBAN: There are frequent bus and trolleybus services in the city. TRAVEL TIMES: The following chart gives approximate travel times (in hours and minutes) from Ulaanbaatar to other major cities/towns in Mongolia. Air Road Erdenet 0.45 9.00 Dalanzadgad 1.20 14.00 Darkhan - 5.00 Terelj - 1.00 Hovsgol 1.30 17.00 (over 2 days) Tsetserleg 1.00 14.00 Khovd 4.00 4/5 days Uvs 3.50 4 days Accommodation HOTELS: There are six major hotels in Ulaanbaatar, offering over 1000 beds. There are also many smaller hotels, guest-houses and hostels of varying standards. There is suitable accommodation for backpackers. Outside the capital, hotels are basic and few in number. Most provide full board, daily excursions and entrance fees to museums and the services of a guide or interpreter. Accommodation can be arranged through tourism companies or directly with the hotels. Grading: There is currently no official grading system for accommodation in Mongolia. For futher information, contact the Mongolian Hotels Association, Children’s Palace, Door No 27, Ulaanbaatar (tel: (11) 450 683; fax: (11) 684 595). RESORT SPAS: There is limited accommodation for visitors. Prices are available on request. CAMPING: There are now 95 tourist ger camps spread throughout the countryside. The accommodation is in gers (round felt tents used by nomadic herders). In most cases, there are also restaurants, bars, toilets and showers. Ger camps are usually open from May to October. Tourists with their own tents have the opportunity to camp almost anywhere they want although there are restrictions in protected areas and it is advisable to avoid settlements. Introduction Mongolia is a far-flung, little visited destination, with much to offer in terms of scenery, wildlife, historic and cultural sites. Outside the main cities, Mongolians continue to live the traditional life of malchin (herdsmen), and many are nomadic. ULAANBAATAR: The capital, Ulaanbaatar, is the country’s political, commercial and cultural centre. There are a number of museums in the city, the largest being the Museum of Natural History. The palaeontological section has a magnificent display of the skeletons of giant dinosaurs. Others include the Zanabazar Museum of Fine Arts, the National Museum of Mongolian History and the Military Museum. There are also several Buddhist temple museums, and the still-functioning Gandan Monastery is worth a visit. Ulaanbaatar also has several theatres and theatre groups, such as the State Opera and Ballet Theatre, the State Drama Theatre and the Folk Song and Dance Ensemble. The Ulaanbaatar State Public Library has a unique collection of 11th-century Sanskrit manuscripts. ELSEWHERE: Every province has its own museums containing examples of local culture. The most popular tour takes the visitor to the Gobi Desert, the habitat of several rare animals, including Bactrian wild camels, snow leopards, Prezwalsky horses and Gobi bears. Coaches take parties to the country’s tourist camps. The nearest to Ulaanbaatar is Terelj, 85km (50 miles) from the capital, where the Gorki Mountains, the Turtle Rock and the Terelj River may be seen. Khangai is a mountainous region with more than 20 hot springs renowned for their healing properties. Another therapeutic spring can be found in Khujirt, where the ruins of the world-renowned Kharakhorum, capital of the Great Mongolian Empire of the 13th century, can also be found. Sport & Activities With one of the world’s lowest population densities, Mongolia’s vast areas of wilderness, desert, lakes and mountains offer plenty of scope for adventurous outdoor enthusiasts. Although independent travel is now becoming more common, travel outside the capital is usually by prior arrangement. For details, contact the Mongolian Embassy (see Contact Addresses section). The Mongolian National Tourism Board will be able to put you in touch with Mongolian tour operators that can arrange itineraries and special-interest tours, including visits with nomadic herdsmen and overnight stays in gers. Activity tours available include trekking, mountaineering, birdwatching, horseriding, rafting, camel riding, yak caravan and overland motorcycle tours. Many of these tours focus strongly on ecology and wildlife, and almost all of them include the Gobi Desert as one of their destinations; apart from its numerous native animal species (see also Resorts & Excursions section), the desert is famous for its fossilised dinosaur bones and eggs. Mongolia’s lakes (notably the huge Khuvsgul Nuur) represent another good hiking destination, as do the Four Holy Peaks surrounding Ulaanbaatar or the Gobi Gurvansaikhan National Park, in the South Gobi. Visitors should note that the weather, although milder than expected, can vary greatly, especially in the mountains and in the Gobi Desert; it is recommended to bring a warm sweater and raincoat for any time of the year. Skiing and cross-country skiing are possible around Ulaanbaatar. Outdoor pursuits: For further information about outdoor activities in Mongolia, travellers can contact the Mongolian National Tourism Board (see Contact Addresses section); or the Mongolian National Ecotourism Society, Ulaanbaatar 49-18 (tel/fax: (11) 318 099; e-mail: ecobund@magicnet.mn; website: www.owc.org.mn/ecobund); or Runwild, which organises ecotourism and adventure tours, Tuushin Building, Suite 511, Ulaanbaatar (tel: (991) 73386; fax: (11) 315 374; email: info@runwild.co.uk; website: www.runwild.co.uk); or the Mongolian Youth Tourism Association, BCC Company, Sukhbaatar Street, Youth Avenue 7/4, PO Box 72, Ulaanbaatar, 210520 (tel: (11) 350 615; fax: (11) 325 336; e-mail: aroundworld@hotmail.com). Social Profile Food & Drink: Meat is the basis of the diet, primarily beef and mutton. The local cooking is quite distinctive. Traditional meals generally consist of boiled mutton with lots of fat and flour with either rice or dairy products. One local speciality is Boodog; this is the whole carcass of a goat roasted from the inside – the entrails and bones are taken out through the throat, the carcass is filled with burning hot stones and the neck tied tightly, and thus the goat is cooked from the inside to the outside. Fish is also beginning to be widely available. Mongolian tea (suutei tsai), meaning salty tea with milk, is very popular. Mongolian vodka is excellent, as is the beer (although it is expensive). Hot and cold beverages are not normally included in meals and many restaurants will add on a 13 per cent sales tax. Nightlife: There are evening performances at the State Opera and Ballet Theatre, State Drama Theatre and Puppet Theatre. The Folk Song and Dance Ensemble and People’s Army Song and Dance Ensemble are in the capital. Other major towns also have theatres. Circus entertainment is also very popular. There is also one cinema featuring English-language films, and large numbers of bars, nightclubs and restaurants that offer dancing or live entertainment (bands). Shopping: In Ulaanbaatar, there are a few duty-free shops and restaurants where convertible currencies are accepted. In all other shops, local currency must be used. The best buys include pictures, cashmere garments, camel-wool blankets, national costumes, boots, jewellery, carpets, books and handicrafts. The notorious black market on the outskirts of Ulaanbaatar is a large, crowded flea market which sells a huge variety of items. Suitable for the adventurous traveller, it is patronised mainly by local people. Pickpockets can be a problem. Shopping hours: Mon-Sun 1000-1800 as a general guide although times and days vary considerably. Special Events: The centuries-old Naadam Festival is celebrated annually in Ulaanbaatar although smaller Naadam festivals take place in the countryside around this time. Herdsmen travel from all over the country to take part in large-scale national games (wrestling, horseracing and archery). For details of further events in 2003, contact the Mongolian National Tourism Board (see Contact Addresses section). The following are some of the events celebrated in 2003: Jan 24-28 Camel Festival, Umnugobi aimag. Feb Tsagaan Tsar (spring festival), nationwide. Jun Mongolian Sunrise to Sunset International Ultra-Marathon, Lake Huvusgul National Park. Jun 10-17 Roaring Hoofs International Festival of Live Music, Ulaanbaatar and Gobi Desert. Jun 17-21 SMET 2003 (trade fair), Ulaanbaatar. Jul 9-19 Naadam Festival, Ulaanbaatar. Jul 27-28 Chinggis Khaan State Worship (anniversary of the birth of Chinggis Khaan-Temuujin), Khenty aimag. Aug 1-2 Yak Festival, Arkhangai aimag and Tariat sum. Aug 22 Mini Naadam, Gobi Desert. Sep 16-20 Ulaanbaatar Partnership 2003 (trade fair), Ulaanbaatar. Oct 7-10 Eagle Hunting Festival, Altai Mountains. Social Conventions: Religious customs should be respected. Mongolia has a large number of customs and traditions. Further details can be obtained from the Mongolian National Tourism Board (see Contact Addresses section). Visitors are requested to familiarise themselves with these customs. Photography: Not permitted in temples and monasteries. A fee is payable for photography in protected areas, although this regulation is often not enforced. Caution should be exercised when photographing government buildings, military establishments and border crossings. Tipping: Not customary, but this is changing and, if leaving a tip, ten per cent is the norm. Business Profile Economy: The vast bulk of Mongolia’s working population is engaged in animal herding. Otherwise, large farms (formerly state owned) produce crops for domestic consumption, principally cereals, potatoes and vegetables. Industrial activity is dominated by production of food, hides and wool, especially high-quality cashmere – much of which is consigned for export – and mining. There are large deposits of coal which meet most of Mongolia’s energy requirements, as well as copper, fluorspar, tungsten, tin, gold, lead and molybdenum, a relatively rare metal of which Mongolia is one of the world’s largest producers. The output of the copper-molybdenum mine at Erdenet accounts for around half of Mongolia’s export earnings. Further significant reserves of mineral wealth have been located but are yet to be exploited; it is fairly certain that there are other large deposits as yet undiscovered. Crude oil extraction began in 1997, but Mongolia still relies on Russia to meet most of its domestic needs. Textiles and light engineering complete Mongolia’s main economic activities. The country suffered badly from the collapse of the former Soviet Union: while Mongolia was not a constituent part of the Soviet Union, its economy was especially dependent on the USSR, with which it did 80 per cent of its trade; most of the rest was with its fellow members of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECON). After some initial resistance by the MPRP (Mongolia’s historic ruling party), most of the economy has been steadily transferred to the private sector. This process was still underway in 2001 when a diverse collection of two dozen enterprises was earmarked for complete or partial sale. Unfortunately, structural difficulties and an unprecedented two consecutive years of the zhud (a uniquely Mongolian climatic phenomenon associated with very severe winters) have set back the country’s economic development. Russia and China are now Mongolia’s principal trade partners and South Korea is a major investor. In 1991, Mongolia joined the IMF and World Bank; in 2000, it became a shareholder (but not a ‘country of operation’) in the European Reconstruction and Development Bank. The EBRD provides support through the Mongolian Co-operation Fund. It is also a member of the Asian Development Bank and receives aid from the EU’s technical assistance programme. Business: Suits are recommended; mediumweight for summer, and heavyweight for winter. Translator services should be arranged prior to departure for Mongolia, although an increasing number of executives speak English, and Russian is widely spoken. Office hours: Mon-Fri 0900-1800. Commercial Information: The following organisation can offer advice: Mongolian Chamber of Commerce and Industry, Freedom Square 1, Democracy Street 1, Ulaanbaatar 210538 (tel: (1) 327 173; fax: (1) 324 620; e-mail: info@mongolchamber.mn; website: www.mongolchamber.mn). Conferences/Conventions: For further information, contact the Mongolian Chamber of Commerce and Industry (see Commercial Information above). Climate A dry climate with short, mild summers and long, severe winters (October to April). Some rain falls during summer and there is snow during winter. Required clothing: Mediumweights are worn during summer, with very warm heavyweights advised for winter. History and Government History: Signs of human habitation in Mongolia go back to the Stone Age. By the third century BC, tribal alliances had been formed which were looking to move south into China. Chinese historians record the repulsion of an invasion from the north by people known as the Xiongnu. Over the next 300 years, a series of fortifications – which eventually became the Great Wall of China – was built to repel the Xiongnu’s repeated incursions. By the middle of the first century AD, the Han Chinese had finally suppressed the invaders. A series of dynasties held sway over the Mongolian region during the next 1000 years, without ever truly dominating what was now a disparate group of nomadic tribes. The better-organised Chinese, such as the Tang dynasty, exerted a considerable influence over the region. The first Mongolian state was established in the early 13th century under the leadership of Temujin (Genghis Khan) who managed to unite the Mongol tribes. His armies, and those of his successors, swept through and occupied Asia and Eastern Europe and threatened to engulf Western Europe as well. At its zenith, the empire stretched from Vietnam to Hungary. Genghis Khan – ‘the man of the millennium’ to many Mongolians – will now celebrated by a vast monument complex in Ulan Bator whose construction began in May 2002. Genghis Khan’s grandson, Kublai Khan, became the first emperor of the Yuan dynasty in China in 1279. Mongol control of China lasted until 1367; from 1380 its possessions to the West were gradually reconquered and by the end of the 14th century the empire had disintegrated. Despite brief periods of resurgence under some of the great Khans (Altan, Dayan, Galdan) who forged temporary unity, the Mongol tribes generally reverted to their traditional fractiousness. Mongolia then became a regional pawn squeezed between the two rising superpowers on the Asian continent: Russia and China. At the end of the 17th century, during which the Russians were preoccupied with developments in Europe, the Manchu dynasty in China took control of the whole of the historic Mongol territory, comprising what became known as Inner and Outer Mongolia. The former is now an autonomous region within the People’s Republic of China; the latter became the independent state of Mongolia. Mongolian independence was achieved, with Russian support, in 1911 under the leadership of the so-called ‘Living Buddha’ Jebsten Damba Khutukhtu. China attempted to reassert its rule following the Russian Revolution of 1917 but was beaten back in 1921, this time with Soviet help. A short-lived restoration of the traditional feudal Buddhist monarchy was followed in 1924 by the declaration of a People’s Republic, under the Mongolian People’s Revolutionary Party (MPRP, Mongol Ardyn Khuvsgatt Nam). China finally recognised Mongolian independence in 1946. During the Cold War, Mongolia was essentially a buffer state between the two great antagonists of the communist world. Though allied to Russia, the Mongolians were careful to maintain good relations with the Chinese. Early in 1990, following developments in the USSR, the MPRP ceded its monopoly of political power and promised multi-party elections within months. The party comfortably won the elections held in July 1990, and committed itself to transforming Mongolia into a market economy. It found the process extremely difficult and resigned at the beginning of 1992. More elections again returned the MPRP, with much the same programme. It was not until 1996 – following the defection from the MPRP of the president of ten years, Punsalmaagiyn Ochirbat – that an alliance of opposition parties took power under the banner of the Democratic Alliance. In June that year, the Alliance also took control of the Great Hural. The MPRP’s exclusion from power was short-lived. The new government was riven by disputes among the Alliance’s member parties. As the economic situation failed to improve over the next few years, disillusionment set in among the electorate. The MPRP regained the presidency in 1997. The new president, Natsagiyn Bagabandi, was re-elected in at the most recent poll in May 2001. A year earlier, the MPRP had recovered the Great Hural with a large majority. Irrespective of the individual premier or party in power, domestic policy remains fixed on a course of gradual reform: this covers social policy as well as economic matters. One notable feature of this has been the resurgence of Bhuddism, which was largely suppressed under Communism: Mongolians are adherents of the Dalai Lama, although this is handled with great caution by the country’s leadership for fear of upsetting the Chinese. Foreign policy continues to be dominated by Mongolia’s relations with China and Russia, both of which have been shored up by the signing of friendship treaties. Government: Under the new constitution, which took effect in February 1992, Mongolia has a unicameral legislature, the 76-member Great Hural, which is elected for a four-year term and appoints ministers who hold executive power. The President, who is also elected for a four-year term, is head of state. Since May 1994, Mongolia has been divided into 21 provinces and one municipality (Ulaan Baatar), with appointed Governors and elected local assemblies. Copyright © 2003 Columbus Publishing Ltd.