Nigeria General Information Area: 923,768 sq km (356,669 sq miles). Population: 113,828,587 (1999). Population Density: 124.0 per sq km. Capital: Abuja. Population: 378,671 (1991). GEOGRAPHY: Nigeria has borders with Niger to the north, Chad (across Lake Chad) to the northeast, Cameroon to the east and Benin to the west. To the south, the Gulf of Guinea is indented by the Bight of Benin and the Bight of Biafra. The country’s topography and vegetation vary considerably. The coastal region is a low-lying area of lagoons, sandy beaches and mangrove swamps, which merges into an area of rainforest where palm trees grow to over 30m (100ft). From here, the landscape changes to savannah and open woodland, rising to the Central Jos Plateau at 1800m (6000ft). The northern part of the country is desert and semi-desert, marking the southern extent of the Sahara. Government: Republic since 1979. Gained independence from the UK in 1960. Military regime from 1983-1999. Head of State and Government: President Olusegun Obasanjo since 1999. Language: The official language is English. A variation of English (Pidgin English) is also spoken. The three main Nigerian languages are Yoruba, Ibo (also spelt Igbo) and Hausa; another 400 languages are also spoken in the country. Religion: Fifty per cent Muslim, 40 per cent Christian and 10 per cent traditional beliefs. Muslims are in the majority in the north and west of the country, while in the south Christians form the majority of the population. Time: GMT + 1. Electricity: 220/250 volts AC, 50Hz. Single phase. Communications:   Telephone Full IDD is available. Country code: 234. Outgoing international code: 009. Mobile telephone GSM 900 and 1800 networks. Network operators include Econet Wireless Nigeria Ltd and NITEL GSM. Internet Internet and e-mail services are available in Internet cafes in Lagos. ISPs include Microcom Systems Ltd (website: www.micro.com.ng). Fax Available in large hotels. Telegram International telegraph services are operated by Nigerian Telecommunications Limited (NITEL) in all large cities. Post Airmail to Europe is unreliable and takes up to three weeks. Delivery may be more reliable through international couriers who are represented in major towns. Press English-language newspapers include the National Concord, the Daily Times, the Guardian, New Nigerian, the Nigerian Tribune, the Post Express, the Sketch, This Day and the Vanguard. BBC World Service and Voice of America frequencies: From time to time these change. BBC (website: www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice): MHz 17.83 15.40 11.77 7.160 Voice of America (website: www.voa.gov): MHz 15.58 11.98 6.035 0.909 Passport/Visa   Passport Required? Visa Required? Return Ticket Required? British Yes Yes Yes Australian Yes Yes Yes Canadian Yes Yes Yes USA Yes Yes Yes OtherEU Yes Yes Yes Japanese Yes Yes Yes PASSPORTS: Passport valid for a minimum of six months beyond the date of departure required by all. VISAS: Required by all except the following: (a) nationals of Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Cape Verde, Chad, Côte d’Ivoire, The Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Liberia, Mali, Mauritania, Morocco, Niger, Senegal, Sierra Leone and Togo for stays of up to 90 days; (b) transit passengers continuing their journey by the same or first connecting aircraft provided holding valid onward or return documentation and not leaving the airport, except for nationals of the USA who require a transit visa. Note: Children under 16 years of age accompanying their parents residing in Nigeria (provided the name of such a child is entered in the passport of one of the parents) do not require visas, but must, however, complete one application form accompanied by a photo. All children holding their own passport must have separate visas or re-entry permits. Types of visa and cost: Tourist, Business: £40 (single-entry); £70 (multiple-entry). Transit: £40. The prices quoted are for UK nationals; visa costs depend on nationality. Nationals of some African countries receive visas free of charge. Contact High Commission or Consular section at Embassy for further information. Application to: Consulate (or Consular section at Embassy or High Commission); see Contact Addresses section. Application requirements: (a) One completed application form. (b) Passport. (c) One passport-size photo. (d) Fee, which at present must be paid by postal order. (e) Onward or return ticket for Tourist visas. (f) Paid registered post return envelope if applying by post. Business: (a)-(f) and, (g) Letter of introduction from a company or a resident of Nigeria, accepting immigration responsibility for applicant; any Nigerian inviting a visitor must attach photocopies of the first five pages of his/her own passport, while a resident must enclose a copy of his/her residence permit. Working days required: Two (if applying in person); seven (postal applications). Money Currency: Naira (N) = 100 kobo. Notes are in denominations of N500, 200, 100, 50, 20, 10 and 5. Coins are in denominations of N1. Currency exchange: The government of Nigeria has fixed an artificially high rate for local currency (the Naira) in terms of its value in exchange for foreign currencies. However, trading on the black market is extremely dangerous and could lead to arrest. Therefore, visitors are advised to exchange currency at the official rate and at approved exchange facilities, which often include major hotels. Inter-bank transfers are frequently difficult, if not impossible, to accomplish. Credit & debit cards: American Express, MasterCard, Diners Club and Visa are rarely accepted in Nigeria and, because of the prevalence of credit card fraud, their use is ill-advised. Travellers cheques: Travellers cheques are generally not recommended. Currency restrictions: Import of local currency is limited to N20 in notes and must be declared on arrival. Export of local currency is restricted to N20 in notes. Import of foreign currency is unlimited, but it must be declared on arrival; export is limited to the amount declared. Penalties for black market transactions are severe. Exchange rate indicators The following figures are included as a guide to the movements of the Naira against Sterling and the US Dollar: Date May ’02 Aug ’02 Nov ’02 Feb ’03 £1.00= 170.94 195.36 202.74 204.84 $1.00= 117.30 128.45 128.20 128.65 Banking hours: Mon 0800-1500, Tue-Fri 0800-1330. There are over 80 commercial banks. The Government owns 60 per cent of all foreign banks. Duty Free The following goods may be imported into Nigeria by persons over 18 years of age without incurring customs duty: 200 cigarettes or 50 cigars or 200g of tobacco; 1l of spirits and 1l of wine; a small amount of perfume; gifts to the value of N300 (excluding jewellery, photographic equipment, electronics and luxury goods). Note: (a) If more than each of the above is imported, duty will be levied on the whole quantity. Heavy duty will be levied on luxury items such as cameras or radios unless the visitor’s stay is temporary. (b) It is forbidden to buy or sell antiques from or to anyone other than the Director of Antiquities or an accredited agent; visitors should obtain a clearance permit from one of the above before presenting antiques, artefacts or curios at the airport. Prohibited items: Champagne, sparkling wine, beer and soft drinks; fruits, vegetables, cereals and eggs, whether fresh or preserved; jewellery and precious metals; textile fabrics and mosquito netting. Public Holidays Dec 6-8 2002 Eid al-Fitr (End of Ramadan). Dec 25-26 Christmas. Jan 1 2003 New Year’s Day. Feb 12 Eid al-Kabir (Feast of the Sacrifice). Apr 18-21 Easter. May 1 Workers’ Day. May 14 Mouloud (Birth of the Prophet). Oct 1 National Day. Nov 26-28 Eid al-Fitr (End of Ramadan). Dec 25-26 Christmas. Jan 1 2004 New Year’s Day. Feb 2 Eid al-Kabir (Feast of the Sacrifice). Apr 9-12 Easter. May 1 Workers’ Day. May 2 Mouloud (Birth of the Prophet). Oct 1 National Day. Nov 14-16 Eid al-Fitr (End of Ramadan). Dec 25-26 Christmas. Note: Muslim festivals are timed according to local sightings of various phases of the moon and the dates given above are approximations. During the lunar month of Ramadan that precedes Eid al-Fitr, Muslims fast during the day and feast at night and normal business patterns may be interrupted. Many restaurants are closed during the day and there may be restrictions on smoking and drinking. Some disruption may continue into Eid al-Fitr itself. Eid al-Fitr and Eid al-Kabir (Eid al-Adha) may last anything from two to ten days, depending on the region. For more information, see the World of Islam appendix. Health   Special Precautions Certificate Required Yellow Fever Yes 1 Cholera Yes 2 Typhoid and Polio 3 N/A Malaria 4 N/A 1: A yellow fever vaccination certificate is required by travellers over one year of age arriving from infected areas. Travellers arriving from non-endemic zones should note that vaccination is strongly recommended for travel outside the urban areas, even if an outbreak of the disease has not been reported and they would normally not require a vaccination certificate to enter the country. The risk of contracting yellow fever is highest in Lagos and Kaduna states. Contact Embassy/High Commission for exact details of vaccination requirements prior to travel. 2: Following WHO guidelines issued in 1973, a cholera vaccination certificate is not a condition of entry to Nigeria. However, evidence of cholera vaccination is required by certain nationals before they may enter the country (check with the nearest Nigerian Embassy) and vaccination is therefore advised. Cholera is a serious risk in this country and precautions are essential. Up-to-date advice should be sought before deciding whether these precautions should include vaccination, as medical opinion is divided over its effectiveness. See the Health appendix for further information. 3: Polio and typhoid both occur. 4: Malaria risk exists all year throughout the country. The predominant falciparum strain has been reported to be resistant to chloroquine. Food & drink: All water should be regarded as being potentially contaminated. Water used for drinking, brushing teeth or making ice should have first been boiled or otherwise sterilised. Milk is unpasteurised and should be boiled. Powdered or tinned milk is available and is advised, but make sure that it is reconstituted with pure water. Avoid dairy products which are likely to have been made from unboiled milk. Only eat well-cooked meat and fish, preferably served hot. Pork, salad and mayonnaise may carry increased risk. Vegetables should be cooked and fruit peeled. Other risks: Bilharzia (schistosomiasis) is present. Avoid swimming and paddling in fresh water. Swimming pools which are well chlorinated and maintained are safe. Hepatitis A, B, C and E are present; precautions should be taken. Meningococcal meningitis, leishmaniasis, trypanosomiasis and onchocerciasis (river blindness) occur. TB and Dengue fever also occur and HIV is a risk. Rabies is present. For those at high risk, vaccination before arrival should be considered. If you are bitten, seek medical advice without delay. For more information, consult the Health appendix. Health care: The government-provided health care facilities are of a poor standard and are subject to shortages of drugs, equipment, materials and even electricity. It is advisable to take a sufficient supply of drugs or medication to meet personal needs. However, there are some adequate private facilities where the standards approach those of Europe. Doctors and hospitals often expect immediate cash payment for health services. There is no reciprocal health agreement with the UK. Medical insurance is essential. Travel - International Note: Travellers are currently advised to avoid the Bakassi Peninsula on the border with Cameroon. Curfews have been imposed by the authorities following disturbances and violence in Makurdi, Jos, Kaduna and Gboko; Kaduna in particular should be avoided. For further advice contact a local government travel advice department. AIR: Nigeria’s national airline is Nigeria Airways (WT), which operates services to West, Central and East African destinations as well as Europe and America (not recommended owing to overbooking; some countries have banned the airline from landing for insurance reasons). Other airlines operating between Nigeria, Europe and North America include British Airways, Air France, Lufthansa, KLM Royal Dutch Airlines, United Airlines and Virgin Atlantic. Approximate flight times: From Lagos to London is 7 hours 25 minutes and to New York is 12 hours 10 minutes. International airports: Lagos (LOS) (Murtala Muhammed) is 22km (13 miles) north of Lagos (travel time – 40 minutes). Taxis to the city are available. There is a free coach service every ten minutes. Airport facilities include restaurant, bar, snack bar, bank, post office and car hire. Kano (KAN) is 8km (5 miles) north of Kano (travel time – 25 minutes). Buses leave for the city every ten minutes 0600-2200, and taxis are available. Airport facilities include restaurant, bank, post office, duty-free shop and car hire. Abuja (ABV) is 35km (22 miles) from the city. Note: Pickpockets and confidence tricksters, some posing as local immigration and other government officials, are especially common at Murtala Muhammed Airport. Departure tax: None. SEA: The main ports are Lagos, Port Harcourt and Calabar. Other important ports include Warri and Sepele. ROAD: Links are with Benin, Niger, Chad and Cameroon. The principal trans-Saharan routes pass through Nigeria from Niger. The principal link with Benin is via the Idoroko border point along the good coast road to Lagos. Travel - Internal AIR: Nigeria Airways (WT) operates between Lagos, Benin City, Port Harcourt, Enugu, Calabar, Kaduna, Kano, Jos, Sokoto, Maiduguri and Yola. Charter facilities are available in Lagos from Aero Contractors, Pan-African Airlines and Delta Air Charter. It is advisable to book internal flights well in advance. There is often considerable delay in internal air services. Lack of fuel sometimes disrupts internal commercial air travel. SEA: Ferry services operate along the south coast and along the Niger and Benue rivers. For timetables and prices, enquire locally. RAIL: The two main routes are from Lagos to Kano (via Ibadan–Oyo–Ogbombosho–Kaduna–Zaria); and from Port Harcourt to Maiduguri (via Aba–Enugu–Makurdi–Jos). These two lines link up Kaduna and Kafanchan. There is also a branch line from Zaria to Gusau and Kaura Namoda. A daily service runs on both main routes. Sleeping cars are available, which must be booked in advance. There are three classes and some trains have restaurant cars and air conditioning. Trains are generally slower than buses, but cheaper. ROAD: Traffic drives on the right. The national road system links all the main centres, although in some areas secondary roads become impassable during the rains. Reports of armed robberies in broad daylight on rural roads in the northern half of Nigeria have been reported and appear to be increasing. Buses and taxis (or ‘bush taxis’ in the shape of Ford Transit vans) run between the main towns. Car hire is not difficult to obtain in Lagos and Abuja, but it is best to go through hotels. Chaffeur-driven cars are advised. Documentation: An International Driving Permit is required, accompanied by two passport-size photos. URBAN: Public transport in Lagos operates in rather chaotic conditions. The city suffers from chronic traffic congestion, which makes it impossible for buses and taxis to operate efficiently, especially during the rush hours. There are many private bus companies and several thousand private minibuses. Taxis in Lagos are yellow and both fares and tip should be agreed in advance. A ferry service runs to Lagos Island. Accommodation HOTELS: There are first-class hotels in Lagos and in the major towns, but they are heavily booked and advance reservation is essential. Lagos is one of the most congested cities in Africa, and the majority of good hotels are on Lagos Island. Hotels are generally very expensive, but there is a variety of alternative accommodation. Further information can be obtained from the Ministry of Culture and Tourism (see Contact Addresses section). OTHER ACCOMMODATION: Government-run catering rest-houses are scattered throughout the country and offer accommodation in colonial-style rest-houses. In many towns, Christian missions are able to offer good basic accommodation at a reasonable price. The universities have guest-houses for visiting academics, but may be able to accommodate other visitors. Most of the big towns have sporting clubs which offer cheap accommodation and eating facilities, and can be used by visitors who take temporary membership. Port Harcourt is the centre of the national oil industry and offers a large selection of accommodation to the industry, which is also available to tourists. The South LAGOS: Lagos is a busy and overcrowded city, reputed to be the most expensive in the world. Its commercial and administrative centre is on Lagos Island at the heart of the city, linked to the mainland by two road bridges. Ikoyi and Victoria islands are also connected to Lagos Island, and both have wealthy residential areas and beautiful gardens. The National Museum at Onikan on Lagos Island houses numerous exhibits of Nigeria’s ancient civilisations and has a craft centre which sells examples of Nigerian craft at fixed prices. In the Jankara Market on Lagos Island, one can bargain for locally dyed cotton and handwoven cloth, herbs and leather goods. THE SOUTHWEST: Ibadan is famous for its university and its market (one of the biggest in Nigeria). It is a convenient base for trips to the other, more traditional, old towns of the Western State. The large, traditional town of Oyo has some old Portuguese-style houses and is the site of the capital of the old Yoruba Empire. Oshogbo is the founding centre of the internationally renowned school of Oshogbo art and home of the shrines and grove of Oshun, the Yoruba goddess of fertility. The famous Oshun Shrine is to be found here. The Oshun Festival takes place towards the end of August each year. Ile-Ife, the ancient name of the town of Ife, is the cradle of Yoruba culture, and includes the Ife Museum, which has many fine bronze and terracotta sculptures dating back to the 13th century. The university here is a centre for batik-dying. Akure is a good base from which to explore the seven Olumirin Waterfalls. THE MOUTH OF THE NIGER: Modern Benin City is a rapidly developing metropolis, but there are a few reminders of its long Yoruba history. The old city’s moat and wall survive in places and the National Museum houses an interesting collection of Benin royal art. The Oba’s Palace is worth visiting, although permission needs to be obtained in Lagos. Many of the villages in Cross River State are of interest for their handicrafts and traditions of magic, but may only be accessible by foot or canoe. Sapoba, Abaraka, Sapele, Warri and Auchi, however, can be reached by road. Calabar is a pleasant town in a beautiful setting, high on a hill above the Calabar River. Ikot Ekepne is the centre for beautiful baskets and carvings, and at Oron there is a museum renowned for its exhibits of Ibibio and Efik carvings. Ikom, on the road to Cameroon, has curious carved monoliths set in circles. Port Harcourt has long been an important merchant port and is today the centre of Nigeria’s oil industry. The North Abuja, the new federal capital since 1991, is as yet undeveloped for tourism. It has a beautiful setting which gives magnificent views across the savannah. KANO: Formerly the largest of the ancient Hausa cities, Kano is today Nigeria’s third-largest city. The walled old town still remains and gives the city a medieval atmosphere, although the city was founded at least 1000 years ago, being of strategic importance on the trans-Saharan trade routes. Kurmi Market has many tourist souvenirs, including the richly embroidered Fulani horse blankets and decorations used at festivals. The famous dye pits (Kofar Mata), still in use and apparently some of the oldest in Africa, are interesting, as is the Grand Mosque. The Emir’s Palace is an outstanding example of Hausa architecture. The city has many colonial-style sporting clubs and good restaurants and nightlife. JOS: Jos is a favourite holiday centre on account of its location (1200m/3900ft above sea level) and pleasant climate. The Jos Museum has a large collection of pottery from all over the country, and the nearby Museum of Traditional Nigerian Architecture holds a collection of full-size replicas representing different styles of Nigerian architecture, including Katsina Palace, Zaria Mosque and the Kano Wall. There is also a small zoo and easy access to such sights as the Assob Falls. ELSEWHERE: Kaduna is a government town laid out by the British and has fine buildings and modern amenities. The ancient walled city of Zaria to the north retains much of its old character and has a fine mosque and Emir’s Palace. Outside Katsina, on the border with Niger, are some old Hausa burial mounds and the city is the site of spectacular Sallah festivals (see Special Events in the Social Profile section). At Maiduguri, the Sallah festival is held three months after the festival of Eid al-Fitr, during which Borno horsemen demonstrate their equestrian prowess. The town also has a palace, park, zoo and museum. The area around Lake Chad is flat and prone to flooding during and after the rains. The whole region is of special interest to the ornithologist and nature enthusiast. In contrast, some of the most striking and fascinating mountain scenery can be enjoyed around Biu and towards the Cameroon border. Sport & Activities Watersports: The numerous beaches offer bathing, although many have strong currents and bathers should not swim far from the shore, especially in Lagos. Many of the better hotels have pools. Good river and sea angling is available throughout the country. Wildlife: Yankari National Park, in the eastern half of the country, is particularly good for birdwatching. Animals which can be viewed here include elephants, crocodiles and monkeys. Nigeria’s largest national park, the Gashaka Game Reserve near Yola, also provides opportunities to view birds and animals. Social Profile Food & Drink: There are restaurants of all varieties in Lagos and the major towns. European and Oriental food is readily available. Although there are self-service cafes, mainly in department stores, most restaurants have table service. Nigerian food is typical of that found throughout West Africa, and meals will often include yam, sweet potatoes, plantain and pepper soup, with regional variations. In the north, meat is more popular than in other areas; specialities are suya (barbecued liver and beef on sticks) and kilishi (spiced dried meat), in the east egussi soup (stew of meat, dried fish and melon seeds), and in the south goat meat and bush meat, particularly antelope, which is considered a delicacy. There are many brands of locally brewed and bottled beer which are very good. Spirits are expensive. Larger hotels and clubs have bars and cocktail lounges. Nightlife: There are nightclubs in many of the hotels in Lagos and in the Surulere district. Some clubs have live entertainment, details of which are given in the local newspapers. North of Oyo in Ogbomosho, there is a lively market, particularly in the evenings. Local festivals which generally take place in the summer months provide a good opportunity to see dancing, music and traditional costumes. Shopping: Markets are the most interesting places to shop. Special purchases include adire (patterned, indigo-dyed cloth), batiks and pottery from the southwest, leatherwork and kaduna cotton from the north and carvings from the east. Designs vary greatly, many towns having their own distinctive style. Other purchases include herbs, beadwork, basketry and ceremonial masks such as those of the Ekpo. Shopping hours: Mon-Fri 0800-1700, Sat 0800-1630. Special Events: In the predominantly Muslim north, the most important festival is Sallah, celebrated three months after the feast of Eid al-Fitr, particularly in the towns of Katsina, Kano, Maiduguri and Zaria. Every family is required to slaughter a ram and festivities last for several days, with horseback processions, musicians and dancers. Featured also in northern communities are Durbars, long lines of horsemen led by a band, the horses in quilted armour with the riders wearing quilted coats and wielding ceremonial swords. In the south, there are masquerades and festivals marking events in local religions. In mid to late February, the Argungu Fishing and Cultural Festival is held on the banks of the Sokoto River. At Oshogbo, the Oshun festival is held at the end of the rainy season (August to September), attracting thousands of childless women who seek the help of the Yoruba goddess of fertility. Festivals in the western states include masquerades in June, the Oro festival in July and the Shango festival in August. In August, the Pategi Regatta takes place, half-way between Ibadan and Kaduna. Other festivals are held in February, July and August in the northern town of Ogbomosho. Social Conventions: Shaking hands with everyone is customary on meeting and departing. In Yorubaland, it is a sign of respect for women to curtsey when introduced, and to enquire after relations, even if this is a first meeting. Unless the visitor knows someone well, it is unusual to be invited to a Nigerian’s home. Most entertaining, particularly in Lagos, takes place in clubs or restaurants. A small gift of appreciation is always welcome and business souvenirs bearing the company logo are also acceptable. Casual wear is suitable and a lightweight suit and tie are only necessary for businesspeople on formal meetings; on most other occasions men will not need to wear a jacket, although a tie might be expected. Women should dress modestly, and respect local customs regarding dress, particularly in the Muslim north. It is inadvisable for women to wear trousers. There are over 250 tribes in Nigeria, the principal groups being the Hausa in the north, the Ibo (or Igbo) in the southeast and the Yoruba in the southwest. The larger of the minor groups are the Fulani, Tiv, Kanuri, Igala, Idoma, Igbirra and Nupe in the north; the Ibibio, Efik, Ekoi and Ijaw in the east; and the Edo, Urhobo, Itsekiri and Ijaw in the west. A result of this ethnic variety is the diversity of art, dance forms, language, music, customs and crafts. Nigerians have a very strong sense of ethnic allegiance. Tipping: Unless a service charge has been included, ten per cent is expected for most services. Note that for taxi drivers the fare including a tip should be agreed before the journey. Airport porters should be tipped per case. Business Profile Economy: Nigeria is Africa’s largest oil producer; the industry earns 90 per cent of the country’s export income and has underpinned its economy for decades. Nigeria also has commercially viable quantities of tin, coal, iron ore, zinc and some uranium, plus substantial but as yet largely untapped reserves of natural gas and coal. Agriculture occupies well over half of the population, who produce rice, maize, cassava, sorghum and millet as staples, as well as groundnuts, cocoa, palm oil and rubber as cash crops. Timber and livestock rearing have both developed during the last 20 years. Nonetheless, successive governments have failed to restore Nigeria’s one-time self-sufficiency in food. Manufacturing was established during the 1960s, principally with oil money, and now includes food processing and the production of vehicles, textiles, pharmaceuticals, paper and cement. Despite its abundance of natural resources, Nigeria has suffered an almost permanent economic crisis during the last ten years, due to political instability, mismanagement and corruption. Per capita GDP is just US$300 annually, not much more than that of the world’s poorest nations. The country is weighed down by a massive foreign debt. Reduction negotiations have been completed with the ‘Paris Club’ of leading creditors. As a condition of the rescheduling, the new civilian Government has begun to put into effect economic reforms, including the sale of major state-owned industries. Recent economic performance has been determined mainly by the state of the world oil market – growth in 2001/02 was limited to just over three per cent by Nigeria’s decision to abide by OPEC quotas. Britain is the largest single exporter to Nigeria. Germany, France, the USA and increasingly Brazil and Spain are other principal sources of imports. The bulk of Nigeria’s exports are sold to the USA, Germany, France, Italy and Brazil. Nigeria is the dominant member of the West African economic co-operation organisation, ECOWAS, as well as a leading member of the oil producers’ cartel, OPEC. Business: English is spoken in business circles. It is common for business meetings to take place without a prior appointment, although these should be made for government visits. Business deals will often progress at a slower pace than is common in Europe. Owing to the prevalence of commercial fraud targeting foreigners, business travellers should contact both their local Nigerian Embassy and Chamber of Commerce before travelling to Nigeria. Office hours: Mon-Fri 0730-1530 (government offices); 0830-1700 (private businesses). Commercial Information: Information and advice can be obtained from Nigerian High Commissions and the Nigerian Information Service Center (see Contact Addresses section). Climate Varies from area to area. The southern coast is hot and humid with a rainy season from March to November. During the dry season, the Harmattan wind blows from the Sahara. The north’s rainy season is from July to September. Nights can be cold in December and January. Required clothing: Lightweight cottons and linens are worn, with a warm wrap advisable in the north. Rainwear is essential during the rainy season. History and Government History: The states of Kanem and Borno, which flourished on the shores of Lake Chad from about AD 10 onwards, were the first imperial states in the region. Their wealth was founded on control of trans-Saharan trade routes. From the 11th to 14th centuries, the Islamic Hausa city-states were also a dominant influence, while in the southwest, the Yoruba cities of Ife, Oyo and Benin became major trading centres. In the 15th century, the Portuguese began trading – first for spices, later for slaves. The Portuguese were then supplanted by other European trading nations. The slave trade disrupted the balance of power in the region, as did the southward expansion of the Islamic faith and the arrival of Christian missionaries in the 18th century. At the end of the 19th century, the British conquered the territory of present-day Nigeria. After World War II, the first step towards decolonisation was the introduction of a federal system of government. A Muslim northerner, Alhaji Abulbakar Tafawa Balewa, became the first prime minister. After a period of internal self-government, full independence from Britain was achieved in 1960. The first post-independence government was a coalition of members of the Northern People’s Congress and the eastern-based National Council for Nigeria and the Cameroon. Since then, the country has endured numerous changes of government, in which the most important factor has almost always been the influence of the military. Concerned that ethnic and religious differences could split the country apart, the army has chosen to intervene on several occasions, to thwart a perceived threat to the integrity of the nation. The greatest crisis came about in the mid-1960s, when the eastern part of the country – styling itself the ‘Republic of Biafra’ – attempted to secede. A three-year (1967-70) civil war followed, at the end of which the secessionists were defeated and the federal government, under General Gowon, reasserted control albeit at a heavy price in lives, especially in the former Biafran territories. Gowon was overthrown by fellow army officers, led by General Murtala Mohammed, in 1974. Mohammed himself was assassinated in 1976, replaced by army chief of staff General Olusegun Obasanjo. The new leader fulfilled the military’s repeated promises to bring about a return to civilian rule. In 1979, Alhaji Shehu Shagari was elected to represent the National Party of Nigeria – a coalition of parties that had existed prior to the 12-year-long ban on political activity. Shagari was re-elected for a second term in 1983, however, after a few months, the military – citing mismanagement and corruption on the part of the civilian government – launched another coup under army chief Mohammed Buhari. Rivalries in the armed forces proved to be just as potent as before. Buhari lasted less than two years before being overthrown by General Ibrahim Babangida, who himself survived several attempted coups led by rival army officers. Despite repeated promises to return the country to civilian rule, largely delivered to mollify the international community, nearly a decade passed before elections were held in 1993. Although every possible arrangement was made to ensure that the military’s favoured candidate was elected, the poll was comprehensively won by Moshood Abiola, a former publisher, promoted as a token opposition candidate. Rather than accept his victory, the military annulled the elections and returned the country to military rule. Sani Abacha, a senior aide to the former president, Babangida, emerged as the new military strongman and, over the next five years, presided over an increasingly oppressive regime. Abiola was put under arrest and other opponents of the regime were jailed or exiled. The regime attracted much international criticism for its treatment of the Ogoni people, located in the oil-rich southeast of the country. A peaceful campaign of opposition, led by writer Ken Saro-Wiwa, was violently suppressed by the military. Prominent Ogoni leaders, including Saro-Wiwa himself, were executed on trumped-up charges. Thereafter, the Abacha government suffered increasing diplomatic isolation, much of it orchestrated by Nelson Mandela, then president of South Africa. Yet, in the immediate aftermath, the army showed no sign of relinquishing its control over the country. Then, in June 1998, Abacha suddenly died. Another member of the military junta, General Abdulsalam Abubakar, took over and moved quickly to shed the country’s pariah status, tackling Nigeria’s now desperate economic situation for the expected elections. These were arranged in the customary fashion, with several manufactured parties of broadly centrist persuasion claiming allegiance from geographically based constituencies. The favourite in the presidential campaign, representing the People’s Democratic Party (PDP), was the former military ruler of the 1970s, Olusegun Obasanjo. He won the February 1999 poll with just under two-thirds of the vote. At the same time, the PDP also secured an absolute majority in both houses of the newly established parliament. The government has set its immediate priorities as being firstly the restoration of Nigeria’s international position – both in Africa and the rest of the world – after years of ostracism, and secondly the tackling of the country’s endemic corruption, starting with the recovery of more than US$1 billion, stolen by the leaders of previous military governments. However, the process of reversing Nigeria’s chronic economic and political decline will be a far more demanding task, especially for an inexperienced civilian government shadowed by a military establishment all too keen to intervene on any pretext. Although the military has so far remained in their barracks, as of 2001 the Obasanjo government has been struggling to improve Nigeria’s political and economic circumstances. Yet Nigeria remains the major regional power and its troops have intervened in a number of conflicts throughout West Africa during the 1990s. The Nigerian-led ECOMOG force played an important role in the decade-long conflict in Liberia. More recently, in September 2002, it despatched troops to support the government of Cote d’Ivoire, which is under threat from rebel forces. On the domestic front, the Obasanjo government has had to deal with growing religious conflict, especially in the northern part of the country. A particular problem has been the decision of several local and regional governments in areas of Muslim majority to introduce a version of Islamic Sharia law. Although it is supposed to apply only to practising Muslims, Christians and others complain of repression. Hundreds were killed in inter-communal clashes in 2000 and again in 2002. These clashes are often set off by the most trivial of disputes. In November 2002, hundreds were killed in the northern city of Kaduna, after protests over plans to hold the ‘Miss World’ pageant in Nigeria. There have also been outbreaks over plans to execute (by stoning) a woman found guilty of adultery and over the assassination of popular Justice minister Bola Ige by Islamic militants in December 2001. Government: Under the provisions of the constitution announced by the government in late 1998, executive power is vested in the president of the republic. Legislative responsibilities are entrusted to the bicameral national assembly, comprising the 360-member House of Representatives and the 109-member Senate. Members of both houses serve a four-year term. Copyright © 2003 Columbus Publishing Ltd.