|
|
| |
Sudan
Overview
Country Overview
Sudan is bordered by Egypt, the Red Sea, Ethiopia, Eritrea, Kenya, Uganda, the Democratic Republic of Congo, the Central African Republic, Chad and Libya. Khartoum, the capital, is situated at the confluence of the Blue and White Niles. Among the tourist attractions are the Omdurman camel market and the Arab souk. Particularly noteworthy is the well-organised National Museum that contains archaeological treasures dating back to 4000 BC and earlier. The main areas of archaeological interest in Sudan are to be found beside the Nile, north of Khartoum. They include Bajrawiya, Naga and Meroe. The Dinder National Park, covering 6475 sq km (2500 sq miles) southeast of Khartoum on the Ethiopian border, is one of the largest in the world. There are many species of wild animals, including lion, leopard, kudu, bushbuck and antelope. The Red Sea, with the transparency of its water, the variety of its fish and the charm of its marine gardens and coral reefs, is one of Sudan’s main tourist attractions. The staple diet is fool, a type of bean, and dura, cooked maize or millet, which are eaten with various vegetables. Alcohol is banned by the Islamic sharia code.
General Information
Area: 2,505,813 sq km (967,500 sq miles).
Population: 28,883,000 (1999).
Population Density: 11.5 per sq km.
Capital: Khartoum. Population: 947,483 (1993).
GEOGRAPHY: Sudan is bordered by Egypt to the north, the Red Sea to the northeast, Ethiopia and Eritrea to the east, Kenya, Uganda and the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the south, the Central African Republic and Chad to the west, and Libya to the northwest. There is a marked difference between the climate, culture and geography of northern and southern Sudan. The far north consists of the contiguous Libyan and Nubian deserts which extend as far south as the capital, Khartoum, and are barren except for small areas beside the Nile River and a few scattered oases. This gives way to the central steppes which cover the country between 15°N and 10°N, a region of short, coarse grass and bushes, turning to open savannah towards the south, largely flat to the east but rising to two large plateaux in the west and south, the Janub Darfur (3088m/10,131ft) and Janub Kordofan (500m/1640ft) respectively. Most of Sudan’s agriculture occurs in these latitudes in a fertile pocket between the Blue and White Niles which meet at Khartoum. South of the steppes is a vast shallow basin traversed by the White Nile and its tributaries, with the Sudd, a 120,000 sq km (46,332 sq miles) marshland, in the centre. This gives way to equatorial forest towards the south, rising to jungle-clad mountains on the Ugandan border, the highest being Mount Kinyeti, at 3187m (10,456ft).
Government: Islamic Republic since 1986. Gained independence from the UK in 1956. Head of State and Government: President Omar Hassan Ahmad al-Bashir since 1989.
Language: Arabic is the official language. English and many local dialects are widely spoken.
Religion: Muslim in the north; Christian and traditional Animist religions in the south.
Time: GMT + 2.
Electricity: 240 volts AC, 50Hz.
Communications:
Telephone
IDD is available. Country code: 249. Outgoing international calls must go through the operator.
Mobile telephone
GSM 900 network is operated by MobiTel (website: www.sdn-mobitel.com). Coverage is available in main towns.
Internet
ISPs include SudanNet (website: www.sudannet.net).
Telegram
The Central Telegraph Office is open at Khartoum (Gamma Avenue) 24 hours a day including holidays.
Post
Post offices open Sat-Thurs 0830-1200 and 1730-1830. Airmail to Europe takes up to one week.
Press
The main dailies are Al-wan, Al Raai al-Akhar and Abbar al-Youm. The Sudan Standard is an English-language daily. There are English-language magazines entitled New Horizons and Sudan Now.
BBC World Service and Voice of America frequencies: From time to time these change.
BBC (website: www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice):
Voice of America (website: www.voa.gov):
Passport/Visa
| | Passport Required? | Visa Required? | Return Ticket Required? | | British | Yes | Yes | Yes | | Australian | Yes | Yes | Yes | | Canadian | Yes | Yes | Yes | | USA | Yes | Yes | Yes | | OtherEU | Yes | Yes | Yes | | Japanese | Yes | Yes | Yes |
Restricted entry: The Sudanese authorities refuse entry and transit to nationals of Israel and holders of passports that contain visas for Israel (either valid or expired).
PASSPORTS: Passport valid for at least six months required by all.
VISAS: Required by all except:
(a) those continuing their journey by the same or first connecting aircraft within six hours, provided holding confirmed onward tickets and documents;
(b) Syrian nationals resident in Syria.
Types of visa and cost: Tourist or Business. Visas cost £53, payable by postal order, company cheque or cash.
Validity: Three months from the date of issue for visits of maximum one month. Visits may be extended once in Sudan. Enquire at Embassy for further details.
Application to: Consular section at Embassy; see Contact Addresses section.
Application requirements: Tourist: (a) Three completed application forms. (b) Three passport-size photos. (c) Fee. (d) Letter or invitation from contact in Sudan*. Business: (a)-(d), and (e) Letter of invitation from employer/Sudanese government.
Note*: It is advisable that all business visitors have an invitation letter/fax from the Sudanese government when applying for a visa. A private company inviting an individual to work in Sudan needs to photocopy the first page of their passport and apply on their behalf with it to the Interior Ministry for initial approval. International Organisations need to get approval from the Foreign Affairs Ministry in Sudan. Contact the Consular section at Embassy for further information; see Contact Addresses section.
Working days required: At least four weeks.
Temporary residence: Enquire at Embassy.
Note: Special permits are required for all travel outside Khartoum. These can be obtained from the Passport and Immigration Office, Ministry of Interior, Khartoum. Travellers staying in Sudan for longer than three days must report to the police.
Money
Currency: Sudanese Dinar (sD) = 10 Sudanese Pounds; 1 Sudanese Pound = 100 piastres. Notes are in denominations of sD1000, 500, 100, 50, 10 and 5. There are also a number of commemorative coins in circulation.
Note: The Sudanese Dinar is pegged to the Libyan Dinar. Exchange rates are liable to change significantly and rapidly. There is a black market with a premium of around 5000 per cent over the official rate.
Currency exchange: Currency should be exchanged only at official bureaux de change and banks, and receipts should be retained. There are severe penalties for changing money on the black market.
Credit & debit cards: American Express is widely accepted, MasterCard and Diners Club have more limited use. Check with your credit or debit card company for merchant acceptability and other services which may be available.
Travellers cheques: These are generally not recommended but should be in a major currency.
Currency restrictions: The import and export of local currency is prohibited. The import and export of foreign currency is unlimited, subject to declaration.
Exchange rate indicators
The following figures are included as a guide to the movements of the Sudanese Dinar against Sterling and the US Dollar:
| Date | May ’02 | Aug ’02 | Nov ’02 | Feb ’03 | | £1.00= | 377.00 | 393.46 | 409.10 | 411.92 | | $1.00= | 258.70 | 258.70 | 258.70 | 258.70 |
Banking hours: Sat-Thurs 0830-1200.
Duty Free
The following items may be imported into Sudan by visitors over 20 years of age without incurring customs duty:
200 cigarettes or 50 cigars or 450g of tobacco; a reasonable amount of perfume and eau de toilette for personal use; a reasonable amount of gifts.
Prohibited items: The import of goods from Israel and South Africa is prohibited. Sudan also adheres to the list of prohibited goods drawn up by the Arab League and these include alcoholic beverages. Fresh fruit and vegetables and blank pro-forma invoices may not be imported.
Public Holidays
Dec 6-8 2002 Eid al-Fitr (End of Ramadan). Dec 25 Christmas Day. Jan 1 2003 Independence Day. Feb 12 Eid al-Adha (Feast of the Sacrifice). Mar 3 National Unity Day. Mar 5 Islamic New Year. Apr 6 Uprising Day. May 14 Al-Mowlid Al Nabawi (Birth of the Prophet). May 25 May Revolution Anniversary. Jun 30 Revolution Day. Nov 26-28 Eid al-Fitr (End of Ramadan). Dec 25 Christmas Day. Jan 1 2004 Independence Day. Feb 2 Eid al-Adha (Feast of the Sacrifice). Feb 22 Islamic New Year. Mar 3 National Unity Day. Apr 6 Uprising Day. May 2 Al-Mowlid Al Nabawi (Birth of the Prophet). May 25 May Revolution Anniversary. Jun 30 Revolution Day. Nov 14-16 Eid al-Fitr (End of Ramadan). Dec 25 Christmas Day.
Note: Muslim festivals are timed according to local sightings of various phases of the moon and the dates given above are approximations. During the lunar month of Ramadan that precedes Eid al-Fitr, Muslims fast during the day and feast at night and normal business patterns may be interrupted. Many restaurants are closed during the day and there may be restrictions on smoking and drinking. Some disruption may continue into Eid al-Fitr itself. Eid al-Fitr and Eid al-Adha may last anything from two to ten days, depending on the region. For more information, see the World of Islam appendix.
Health
| | Special Precautions | Certificate Required | | Yellow Fever | Yes | 1 | | Cholera | 2 | No | | Typhoid and Polio | 3 | N/A | | Malaria | 4 | N/A |
1: The risk of yellow fever is primarily in the equatorial south. A yellow fever vaccination certificate is required from travellers over one year of age arriving from infected areas, and may be required from travellers leaving Sudan. Those countries and areas formerly classified as endemic zones are considered by the Sudanese authorities to be infected areas. Travellers arriving from non-endemic zones should note that vaccination is strongly recommended for travel outside the urban areas, even if an outbreak of the disease has not been reported and they would normally not require a vaccination certificate to enter the country.
2: Following WHO guidelines issued in 1973, a cholera vaccination certificate is no longer a condition of entry to Sudan. However, cholera is a serious risk in the country and precautions are essential. Up-to-date advice should be sought before deciding whether these precautions should include vaccination as medical opinion is divided over its effectiveness. See the Health appendix.
3: Vaccination against typhoid is advised.
4: Malaria risk, predominantly in the malignant falciparum form, exists throughout the year throughout the country. In the north, the risk is seasonal and low. High resistance to chloroquine and resistance to sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine has been reported. The recommended prophylaxis is mefloquine.
Food & drink: All water should be regarded as a potential health risk. Water used for drinking, brushing teeth or making ice should have first been boiled or otherwise sterilised. Milk is unpasteurised and should be boiled. Avoid dairy products which are likely to have been made from unboiled milk. Only eat well-cooked meat and fish, preferably served hot. Pork, salad and mayonnaise may carry increased risk. Vegetables should be cooked and fruit peeled.
Other risks: Bilharzia (schistosomiasis) is present. Avoid swimming and paddling in fresh water. Swimming pools which are well chlorinated and maintained are safe. Visceral leishmaniasis is currently epidemic in eastern and southern Sudan. Vaccination is strongly recommended. The disease is transferred through sandflies which live mainly on river banks and in wooded areas.
The transmission rate of trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness) is high, with a significant risk of infection for travellers visiting rural areas in the south of the country. Hepatitis A, B and E, diphtheria and meningococcal meningitis are also present. Dracunculiasis is prevalent in the south. Rabies is present. For those at high risk, vaccination before arrival should be considered. If you are bitten, seek medical advice without delay. For more information, consult the Health appendix.
Health care: Medical treatment may be free at certain establishments but health insurance is essential and should include cover for emergency repatriation. Medical facilities are very limited, particularly outside Khartoum.
Travel - International
Note: Travel to the Eritrean border/Kassala area is not advised at present and southern Sudan should also be avoided except on essential business or if engaged in relief work. For further advice contact a local government travel advice department.
AIR: The national airline is Sudan Airways (SD). Other airlines serving Sudan include Lufthansa and Syrian Arab Airlines.
Approximate flight times: From Khartoum to London is 8 hours, including stopover.
International airports: Khartoum (KRT) (Civil) is 4km (2.5 miles) southeast of the city. Airport facilities include restaurants (24 hours) and duty-free shops. Taxi services are available.
Departure tax: US$20 (Sudanese nationals may pay in local currency). Transit passengers are exempt.
SEA: The only sea ports are Port Sudan and Suakin on the Red Sea. Piracy has been reported in the area.
RIVER: There are car ferries from Aswan in Egypt to Wadi Halfa.
RAIL: Rail links run from Cairo (Egypt) to Aswan High Dam and then by riverboat to Wadi Halfa.
ROAD: Entry to Sudan by road is at present only possible at Wadi Halfa on the Egypt/Sudan border.
Travel - Internal
Note: Travel outside of Khartoum is restricted; see end of Passport/Visa section.
AIR: Sudan Airways (SD) runs services to 20 airports, including Dongola, Juba, Port Sudan and El Obeid. The most reliable route is Port Sudan to Khartoum. There is also an air-taxi service operating twice-weekly to Nyala, available from Khartoum.
Departure tax: sD600.
RIVER: River steamers serve all towns on the Nile but conditions are mostly unsuitable for tourist travel. Services depend on fluctuating water levels. It is wise to take food and water. Destinations include Dongola, Karima, Kosti and Juba. A 320km (200-mile) navigable canal, the Jonglei, is under construction in the south.
RAIL: Sudan has an extensive rail network (5500km/3418 miles) but the service is in bad repair, extremely slow and uncomfortable. Travelling first class is advisable; second- and third-class compartments can get very crowded. Sleeping cars are available on main routes from Khartoum to Wau/Nyala, Khartoum to Kassala/Wadi Halfa and Port Sudan to Khartoum. There are a few air-conditioned carriages, for which a supplement is charged.
ROAD: Only major roads are asphalted; road conditions are poor outside towns, roads to the north are often closed during the rainy season (July to September) and street lights are non existent. Owing to the bad conditions, a full set of spare parts should be carried for long journeys. Vehicles must be in good working condition. Traffic drives on the right. Bus: Services run between the main towns and depart from the market places; however they are not entirely safe. Souk (market) lorries are a cheap but uncomfortable method of transport. Taxi: Also often unsafe, taxis can be found at ranks or hailed in the street. Taxis are not metered, fares must be agreed in advance. Car hire: Available in the main towns and at major hotels but charges are high. Documentation: Carnet de Passage, adequate finance and roadworthiness certificate (from the Embassy) are all needed. An International Driving Permit is recommended, although not legally required. A temporary driving licence is available from local police on presentation of a valid British or Northern Ireland driving licence. Women are allowed to drive in Sudan.
URBAN: Publicly operated bus services in Khartoum have of late become unreliable and irregular which has led to the proliferation of private bakassi minibuses, nicknamed boks. They pick up and set down with no fixed stops. These operations are on the fringes of legality and should be used with care.
Accommodation
HOTELS: Accommodation is scarce outside Khartoum and Port Sudan. Khartoum has around ten major hotels, including some of international standard, and Port Sudan also has several. There are a few smaller hotels in the main towns and several hostels.
YOUTH HOSTELS: Contact the Youth Hostels Association, PO Box 1705, House no. 66, Street no. 47, Khartoum East (tel: (11) 722 087; fax: (11) 780 308).
Introduction
Sudan has only recently been developed as a tourist destination, and communications and facilities are still limited outside Khartoum. Travel restrictions are also in force in much of the country (see Passport/Visa section) owing to the presence of separatist insurgents. There is currently a civil war in the south of the country.
KHARTOUM: The capital is situated at the confluence of the Blue and White Niles. With Omdurman, the old national capital, and Khartoum North, it forms one unit called the ‘three-towns capital’. Among the tourist attractions are the Omdurman camel market and the Arab souk. A good selection of Sudanese handicrafts is sold in several shops in the centre and in the reception halls of bigger hotels.
Particularly noteworthy from a historical and artistic point of view is a visit to the well-organised National Museum which contains archaeological treasures dating back to 4000 BC and earlier. A visit to the Khalifa’s House Museum will reward those who are interested in Sudan’s more recent history, especially the reign of the Mahdi (1881-1899).
EXCURSIONS: A visit to the Gezira model farm and a trip along the Nile to the dam at Jebel Aulia, where the Nile is especially rich in fish, are recommended. Sunset on the river is spectacular. The main areas of archaeological interest in Sudan are to be found beside the Nile north of Khartoum. They include Bajrawiya, Naga, Musawarat, El Kurru, Nuri and Meroe.
DINDER NATIONAL PARK: Covering 6475 sq km (2500 sq miles) southeast of Khartoum on the Ethiopian border, the Dinder National Park is one of the largest in the world. There are many species of wild animals, including lion, giraffe, leopard, kudu, bushbuck and antelope, and birds such as guinea fowl, vulture, pelican, stork, kingfisher and the beautiful crown crane. Special three-day trips from Khartoum are organised in the high season (December to April).
THE RED SEA: With the transparency of its water, the variety of its fish and the charm of its marine gardens and coral reefs, the Red Sea is one of Sudan’s main tourist attractions. The busy Port Sudan, Suakin, famous during the Ottoman era, and the Arous Tourist Village, 50km (30 miles) north of Port Sudan, are just three centres from which to explore the coast. Erkowit, 1200m (3930ft) above sea level, is a beautiful resort in the coastal mountains and is famed for its evergreen vegetation.
THE WEST: Jebel Marra, at more than 3088m (10,100ft), is the highest peak in the Darfur region of western Sudan. It is a region of outstanding scenic beauty, with waterfalls and volcanic lakes and a pleasant climate, and consequently a favoured resort.
THE SOUTH: The Southern Provinces are characterised by green forests, open parkland, waterfalls and treeless swamps abounding with birds and wild animals such as elephant, black and white rhino, common eland, Nile lechwe, lesser kudu, bisa oryx, zebra, crocodile, hippo, hyena, buffalo and the almost extinct shoebill. The Gemmeiza Tourist Village, situated in the heart of East Equatoria, is considered of special interest, owing to the abundance of game in that area.
Note: The people of the south are largely Christian and this has led to friction with the ruling Muslim factions in the north. Check with the Embassy before travelling if a visit to this region is intended (see also Passport/Visa section).
Sport & Activities
Note: Civil war and political instability prevent travellers from undertaking these activities at present.
General: There is normally great scope for watersports on the Red Sea coast, including swimming, diving on coral reefs and fishing for barracuda, sharks and grey cod. Wildlife enthusiasts may head to the Dinder National Park while visitors interested in archaeology will find much of interest in the region north of Khartoum (see Resorts & Excursions section).
Social Profile
Food & Drink: The staple diet is fool, a type of bean, and dura, cooked maize or millet, which are eaten with various vegetables. The hotel restaurants in Khartoum and Port Sudan serve international cuisine and there are a few Greek and Middle Eastern restaurants. If invited to a Sudanese home, more exotic food will usually be served. Alcohol is banned by the Islamic Sharia code.
Nightlife: The best entertainment is found in Khartoum and Omdurman, with the national theatre, music hall, cinemas, open-air and hotel entertainment.
Shopping: The souk has stalls selling food, local crafts, spices, jewellery and silver. Special purchases include basketwork, ebony, gold and silver and assorted handicrafts. Visitors must not buy cheetah skins: the killing of cheetahs is prohibited and they are a protected species under the World Wildlife Act. Shopping hours: Sat-Thurs 0800-1330 and 1730-2000.
Social Conventions: In the north, Arab culture predominates while the people in the more fertile south belong to many diverse tribes, each with their own lifestyle and beliefs. Because Sudan is largely Muslim, women should not wear revealing clothing. At official and social functions as well as in some restaurants, formal clothes are expected. The Sudanese have a great reputation for hospitality. A curfew operates in major cities from 0000-0400. Photography: There are many restrictions on photography: a photography permit can be obtained from the tourist office in Khartoum. Tipping: Not customary.
Business Profile
Economy: Once described as the bread basket of the Arab world, Sudan is a country of high, though largely unrealised, economic potential which is presently crippled by civil war, a massive foreign debt of around US$25 billion, and climatic effects which have brought both drought and flooding. Agriculture employs most of the workforce, producing cotton – the major export – wheat, groundnuts, sorghum and sugar cane. Production of gum arabic, once an important product, has declined through the introduction of synthetic substitutes and increasing competition, particularly from West Africa. Livestock breeding has suffered from persistent drought. By late 2002, the country was suffering severe food shortages and will need substantial food aid during the next 12 months.
The manufacturing sector concentrates on processing the country’s agricultural output – sugar, for example – and the production of textiles, cement and some consumer goods. There are also sizeable onshore oil deposits: located in the mid-1990s, these came on stream in 1999. The steady growth in output has had an important effect on the conduct of the war as both sides adjust their strategies to take account of the potential revenues (or loss thereof). Other mineral deposits include marble, mica, chromite, gypsum and gold. The development of the Sudanese economy has been constrained by shortages of both water and power. The government has announced a major dam project and a new oil refinery which are intended to meet these needs.
Ultimately, Sudan relies on foreign aid to sustain its economy. Relations with the IMF have been rocky – Sudan was almost thrown out in the mid-1990s – but the Fund is now providing some financial support in exchange for a standard economic reform programme. Elsewhere, while the political posture of Sudan’s Islamic government has alienated Western governments, it can still rely on support from wealthy Arab states, notably Saudi Arabia. Nonetheless, the Islamic government’s economic programme has successfully achieved its principal targets of five-six per cent annual growth and inflation of below five per cent. Saudi Arabia is the largest exporter to Sudan, and is also a major recipient of Sudanese exports along with Egypt, Italy and Japan.
Business: Businessmen should wear a lightweight suit. Visiting business people should respect Muslim customs. It should be clearly stated in advance if the visitor is female. English is widely spoken in business circles although knowledge of a few words of Arabic will be well received. Punctuality is less important than patience and politeness. Personal introductions are an advantage; business cards should have an Arabic translation on the reverse. Office hours: Sat-Thurs 0800-1430.
Commercial Information: The following organisations can offer advice: Sudan Development Corporation (SDC), PO Box 710, 21 al-Amarat, Khartoum (tel: (11) 472 186 or 472 195; fax: (11) 472 148); or Sudan Chamber of Commerce, PO Box 81, Gamhoria Street, Khartoum 11114 (tel: (11) 772 346; fax: (11) 780 748; e-mail: chamber@sudanchamber.org; website: www.sudanchamber.org).
Climate
Extremely hot (less so November to March). Sandstorms blow across the Sahara from April to September. In the extreme north, there is little rain but the central region has some rainfall from July to August. The southern region has much higher rainfall, the wet season lasting May to October. Summers are very hot throughout the country, whilst winters are cooler in the north.
Required clothing: Tropical clothes all year, warmer clothes for cool mornings and evenings (especially in the desert).
History and Government
History: The original inhabitants of this area were converted to Christianity – the Egyptian-based Coptic version in the sixth century AD – and then to Islam in the 15th century, when Arabic forces from the Gulf moved into the region. The Egyptians reclaimed control of the provinces of Nubia, Senaar and Kordofan, which make up modern Sudan, in a campaign between 1820 and 1822. In the mid-19th century, Sudan became of interest to the UK, because of its strategic importance for trade routes to India via the newly-opened Suez Canal, as well as the desire to limit French influence in the West. The French had already encroached as far as Chad – Sudan’s immediate neighbour – and would ultimately control the bulk of north-west Africa.
Consequently, Sudan came under British and Egyptian control in the 1880s. Local resistance at this time was led by Mahdi Mohammed Ahmed, a figure revered by his people as both a mystic and a holy warrior. The so-called Mahdists defeated a British-led force of Egyptian troops in 1883. This culminated in the death of the British commander, General Gordon, when the Sudanese took Khartoum after a long siege. The Mahdists retained control of Sudan until the British re-conquered the territory in 1898. An Anglo-Egyptian condominium was established in 1899. In 1914, Egypt itself was made a British protectorate and Sudan was accordingly taken under British rule. When the protectorate was dissolved in 1922, the future of Sudan was left open, as a subject of further negotiations. In 1929, the condominium was restored.
A further Anglo-Egyptian treaty in 1936 allowed Egyptian troops and civilian immigrants to enter Sudan without restriction. After World War II, Sudan became the subject of serious contention between Britain and Egypt. Efforts to co-opt Sudan to Egyptian control in 1951 were firmly resisted by the Sudanese. Then, in 1952, the overthrow of Egypt’s King Farouk by Colonel Gamal Abdel Nasser (see Egypt) brought to power an Egyptian government more sympathetic towards Sudan’s independence aspirations. In 1952, Britain and Egypt agreed on a constitution for Sudan, allowing free elections and a referendum on independence, which was finally granted in 1956.
The Sudanese House of Representatives, elected in November 1953, chose Abdullah Khalil, leader of the Umma (People’s) Party, as premier. However, Khalil’s government lasted less than two years, before it was overthrown by army chief Ibrahim Abboud. Resenting the political domination of the mainly Muslim North, the mostly Christian and animist southerners launched an insurrection against the Khartoum government. This was the trigger for a conflict that has raged almost continuously ever since and claimed an estimated two million lives. In a pattern to be repeated time and again, the new regime held talks with southern leaders and offered limited autonomy; the southerners then rejected the terms as inadequate. Abboud was, in turn, turfed out of office in 1964.
In May 1969, the civilian government of Mohammed Ahmed Mahgoub, which had been elected after the fall of the Abboud regime in 1964, was itself deposed in a military coup that installed Jafaar al-Nimeri as president. Nimeri negotiated a settlement with the south in 1972. When the settlement collapsed in 1983, it signalled the beginning of the end for Nimeri himself. The main cause was the introduction of Islamic Sharia law, intended to placate increasingly troublesome Muslim elements complaining about the austerity programme introduced on the instruction of the IMF earlier in the year. Not surprisingly, it was not well received in the south either and was later withdrawn.
The southerners soon returned to fully-fledged armed struggle under the banner of the Sudanese People’s Liberation Front (SPLF) and its military arm, the Sudanese People’s Liberation Army (SPLA), led by John Garang. Kahrtoum politics were still as unstable as ever: In 1985, Nimeri was overthrown while visiting the USA. The new regime was unable to stabilise its rule and, after four years, was itself overthrown by General Omar al-Bashir.
This coup was different. Unlike its predecessors, the new government had a political backbone and an ideological direction – these were provided by the National Islamic Front, a fundamentalist Islamic political organisation led by Sheikh Hassan al-Turabi. The Front’s influence became quickly apparent when Sharia was once again introduced at the beginning of 1991.
The tide of the war also started to turn Khartoum’s way, after a major split within the SPLA into two factions – the ‘Torit’, mostly Dinka tribespeople who remained loyal to the veteran SPLA leader John Garang, and the ‘Nasir’, mainly drawn from the Nu’er tribe, who followed the breakaway leader Riek Macahar. To compound their difficulties, the overthrow of President Mengistu of Ethiopia deprived the SPLA of one of its principal foreign backers. But the fundamentalist nature of the government in Khartoum was causing worries in many quarters and it was not long before SPLA attracted new supporters. These included Uganda, Ethiopia (once again), Egypt and, most importantly, the US. By 1995, the SPLA had recovered much of its position.
In 1996, the Bashir-Turabi regime sought to consolidate its political legitimacy by holding national elections. These were comfortably won by al-Bashir, standing for the presidency, and al-Turabi as head of the National Congress Party. That same year, the US Clinton administration, apparently convinced that Sudan was supporting international terrorism and developing chemical weapons, launched a missile attack on a legitimate pharmaceutical plant. While the attack was misconceived, it appears to have the unintended effect of bringing a simmering power struggle between al-Bashir and al-Turabi to a head. This was won by al-Bashir, who went on to win a second electoral term as president in 2000; al-Turabi disappeared from the political scene after his release from two years imprisonment in October 2001.
In 1999, the long-running war took a new turn when the expansion of oil deposits, discovered earlier in the decade, provided the government with a significant new source of revenue. Now armed with a powerful new arsenal of high-tech weaponry, the government is convinced that it can achieve victory over the rebels. A quick victory eluded them, however, and since late 2002, the government has agreed (under pressure from the US, among others) to restart talks with the rebels. Oil interests now play a major role in Sudanese politics.
Government: Executive power is vested in the president, who is popularly elected for a five-year term. The 400-member Majlis Watani serves as the national assembly – 275 of its members are directly elected for a four-year term in multi-seat constituencies; the remainder are indirectly elected by a national conference.
Copyright © 2003 Columbus Publishing Ltd.
|
|
|
|
|