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Syrian Arab Republic
Overview
Country Overview
Syria can be divided geographically into four main areas: the fertile plain in the northeast; the plateau, coastal and mountain areas in the west; the central plains; and the desert and steppe region in the central and southeastern areas. The Euphrates flows from Turkey in the north, through Syria, down to Iraq in the southeast. Damascus: The capital of Syria is the world's oldest inhabited city. A central feature of this cluttered and clamorous city is the Ummayyad Mosque. The 18th-century Al-Azem palace is now a national museum, featuring beautifully illuminated copies of the Koran. Homs is a large city known for its industry. Of historical interest is the mausoleum of Khalid Ibn al-Walid. Located 65km (40 miles) outside Homs, Crac des Chevaliers is the most famous crusader castle in the world. Rising from an altitude of 670m (2200ft), its watch-towers once afforded protection. Latakia, Syria's principal Mediterranean coastal port is a major holiday resort. National dishes include kubbeh (minced semolina and meat formed in balls and stuffed with minced meat, onion and nuts) and yabrak (vine leaves stuffed with rice and minced meat).
General Information
Area: 185,180 sq km (71,498 sq miles).
Population: 16,110,000 (1999).
Population Density: 87.0 per sq km (1999).
Capital: Damascus. Population: 1,431,821 (1998).
GEOGRAPHY: The country can be divided geographically into four main areas: the fertile plain in the northeast, the plateau, coastal and mountain areas in the west, the central plains, and the desert and steppe region in the central and southeastern areas. The Euphrates flows from Turkey in the north, through Syria, down to Iraq in the southeast. It is the longest river in Syria, the total length being 2330km (1450 miles), of which 600km (370 miles) pass through Syria. The Khabur River supports the al-Khabur Basin in the northeast.
Government: Republic since 1973. Gained independence in 1946. Head of State: President Bashar al-Assad since 2000. Head of Government: Prime Minister Muhammad Mustafa Mero since 2000.
Language: Arabic, French and English. Kurdish is spoken by a small minority.
Religion: Over 80 per cent Muslim (mostly Sunni), with sizeable Christian (mostly Orthodox and Catholic) groups and Jewish minorities.
Time: GMT + 2 (GMT + 3 from 30 March to 30 September).
Electricity: 220 volts AC, 50Hz. European-style two-pin plugs.
Telephone
IDD is available. Country code: 963. Outgoing international code: 00.
Mobile telephone
GSM 900/1800 network. Network operators include Syrian Telecommunications Establishment and Mobile Syria (website: www.syriatel.com).
Fax
Available at post offices and major hotels.
Internet
Access to Internet services is available in universities and public offices. Syrian Telecommunication Establishments (website: www.ste.net.sy) is the main ISP.
Telegram
Service available from the main telegraph office in Damascus, most hotels and post offices.
Post
Airmail to Western Europe takes up to ten days. Parcels sent from Syria should be packed at the post office. There are post offices in virtually all towns. Post office hours: Mon-Fri 0900-1500; larger branches will be open all day.
Press
The Syria Times is published daily in English. All other newspapers are in Arabic (the most important ones being Al-Baath, Tishrin and Ath-Thawra). International papers are also widely available.
BBC World Service and Voice of America frequencies: From time to time these change.
BBC (website: www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice):
Voice of America (website: www.voa.gov):
Passport/Visa
| | Passport Required? | Visa Required? | Return Ticket Required? | | British | Yes | Yes | Yes | | Australian | Yes | Yes | Yes | | Canadian | Yes | Yes | Yes | | USA | Yes | Yes | Yes | | OtherEU | Yes | Yes | Yes | | Japanese | Yes | Yes | Yes |
Restricted entry and transit: (a) Holders of Israeli passports will be refused admission; so will any passenger holding a passport containing a visa (valid or expired) for Israel and those holding a stamp indicating an Israel-Jordan border crossing. (b) The following may be refused entry into Syria: all holders of Chinese Taipei and Korea (Rep) passports; female nationals of Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Philippines, Sri Lanka and Thailand, who must obtain prior approval from the Department of Immigration in Syria before entering the country. (c) Nationals of Iraq may be refused transit in Syria. (d) Nationals of Egypt with Iraqi visa/entry stamp dated after November 1980 in passport.
PASSPORTS: Passport valid for at least six months required by all except nationals of Lebanon holding valid national ID cards.
VISAS: Required by all except the following:
(a) nationals of Algeria, Bahrain, Egypt, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Somalia, Sudan, Tunisia, United Arab Emirates and Yemen;
(b) transit passengers continuing their journey by the same or first connecting aircraft within 24 hours provided holding onward or return documentation and not leaving the airport.
Types of visa and cost: Single-entry: £37. Multiple-entry: £57. Transit. Payable in cash or by postal order only. These fees are for nationals of the UK only. The cost of visas for other nationalities varies; consult the Embassy for further information.
Validity: Single-entry (three months from date of issue). Multiple-entry (six months from date of issue). Transit (three months from date of issue). Entry visas initially allow stays of up to 14 days. Extensions for up to three months are possible; apply at the Department of Immigration.
Application to: Consulate (or Consular section at the Embassy); see Contact Addresses section. In countries where Syria does not have diplomatic representation, visitors should apply by post to the nearest Syrian Embassy.
Application requirements: (a) Two completed application forms. (b) Valid passport with at least one blank page. (c) Two passport-size photos. (d) Fee. (e) A stamped, self-addressed envelope for postal applications. (f) For a Business visa, a company letter stating the nature of the business.
Working days required: Seven.
Temporary residence: Applications to the Department of Immigration in Damascus.
Money
Currency: Syrian Pound (S£) = 100 piastres. Notes are in denominations of S£1000, 500, 200, 100, 50, 25, 10, 5 and 1. Coins are in denominations of S£25, 10, 5, 2 and 1.
Currency exchange: Syrian currency cannot generally be reconverted to hard currency. The country's banking system is state-owned, and there is at least one branch of the Commercial Bank of Syria in every main town. Hard currency can be exchanged for local currency in these branches.
Credit & debit cards: American Express and Diners Club are most readily accepted; some hotels will accept MasterCard. Tickets may be bought with credit cards. Check with your credit, or debit, card company for merchant acceptability and for other services which may be available.
Travellers cheques: Not always exchangeable at Damascus airport and not generally recommended.
Currency restrictions: The import of local and foreign currency is unlimited. The export of local currency is prohibited. The export of foreign currency is limited to the amount declared on arrival.
Exchange rate indicators
The following figures are included as a guide to the movements of the Syrian Pound against Sterling and the US Dollar:
| Date | May ’02 | Aug ’02 | Nov ’02 | Feb ’03 | | £1.00= | 63.68 | 74.30 | 81.56 | 73.24 | | $1.00= | 43.70 | 48.85 | 51.58 | 46.00 |
Banking hours: Normally Sat-Thurs 0800-1400 (banks tend to close early Thursday).
Duty Free
The following items may be imported into Syria without incurring customs duty (irrespective of passenger's age):
200 cigarettes or 50 cigarillos or 25 cigars or 250g of tobacco; 30g perfume for personal use; 570ml of spirits; 500ml of lotion and 500ml of eau de cologne; gifts worth up to S£250.
Prohibited items: Firearms and ammunition.
Public Holidays
Jan 1 2003 New Year’s Day. Feb 12 Eid al-Adha (Feast of the Sacrifice). Mar 5 Islamic New Year. Mar 8 Revolution Day. Mar 21 Mothers Day. Apr 17 Independence Day. May 1 Labour Day. May 6 Martyrs’ Day. May 14 Mouloud (Birth of the Prophet). Oct 6 October Liberation War. Nov 26-28 Eid al-Fitr (End of Ramadan). Dec 25 Christmas Day. Jan 1 2004 New Year’s Day. Feb 2 Eid al-Adha (Feast of the Sacrifice). Feb 22 Islamic New Year. Mar 8 Revolution Day. Mar 21 Mothers Day. Apr 17 Independence Day. May 1 Labour Day. May 2 Mouloud (Birth of the Prophet). May 6 Martyrs’ Day. Oct 6 October Liberation War. Nov 14-16 Eid al-Fitr (End of Ramadan). Dec 25 Christmas Day.
Note: Muslim festivals are timed according to local sightings of various phases of the moon and the dates given above are approximations. During the lunar month of Ramadan that precedes Eid al-Fitr, Muslims fast during the day and feast at night and working hours are 0900-1400. Many restaurants are closed during the day and there may be restrictions on smoking and drinking. For more information, see the World of Islam appendix.
Health
| | Special Precautions | Certificate Required | | Yellow Fever | No | 1 | | Cholera | 2 | No | | Typhoid and Polio | 3 | N/A | | Malaria | 4 | N/A |
1: A yellow fever vaccination certificate is required from travellers coming from infected areas.
2: Following WHO guidelines issued in 1973, a cholera vaccination certificate is not a condition of entry to Syria. Up-to-date advice should be sought before deciding whether precautions should include vaccination, as medical opinion is divided over its effectiveness. See the Health appendix.
3: Vaccination against typhoid is advised.
4: Malaria risk, exclusively in the benign vivax form, exists along the northern border, especially in the northeast of the country, from May through October.
Food & drink: Mains water is normally chlorinated and relatively safe. Bottled water is available and is advised for the first few weeks of the stay. Drinking water outside main cities and towns is likely to be contaminated and sterilisation is considered essential. Milk is unpasteurised and should be boiled. Powdered or tinned milk is available and is advised but make sure that it is reconstituted with pure water. Only eat well-cooked meat and fish, preferably served hot. Vegetables should be cooked and fruit peeled.
Other risks: Hepatitis A is common and Hepatitis B is endemic. Bilharzia (schistosomiasis) is present. Avoid swimming and paddling in fresh water. Swimming pools which are well chlorinated and maintained are safe. Visceral leishmaniasis occurs in the northwest.
Rabies is present. For those at high risk, vaccination before arrival should be considered. If you are bitten, seek medical advice without delay. For more information, consult the Health appendix.
Health care: Health insurance is recommended. There is no reciprocal health agreement with the UK. There are about 200 hospitals and 16,000 doctors; basic medical facilities exist in main cities but there are few outside them. Medical care is provided free of charge to those who cannot afford to pay. For more information, see the Health appendix.
Travel - International
AIR: Syria’s national airline is Syrian Arab Airlines (RB). British Mediterranean (a franchise partner of British Airways) operates five services a week from London to Damascus and two services to Aleppo.
Approximate flight times: From Damascus to London is 5 hours 50 and from Aleppo is 4 hours 50 minutes.
International airports: Damascus (DAM), 25km (18 miles) southeast of the city (travel time – 30 to 40 minutes). Two other international airports, Aleppo and Latakia offer connections to Amman and Beirut airports. A bus service runs every 30 mins from 0600-2300. Return is from the city centre. Taxis are available, but it is advisable to negotiate fares beforehand if there is no taxi meter in the cab. Facilities include banking, restaurants/snack bars, duty-free shop and tourist information.
Aleppo (ALP) (Nejrab), 10km (6.5 miles) from the city (travel time – 20 minutes). Bus and taxi services go to the city. Facilities include banking, restaurants/snack bars and tourist information.
Latakia Airport (LTK) is situated 25km (16 miles) from the city. Although there are no scheduled flights serving this airport, some chartered flights run here.
Departure tax: S£200. Children under ten years are exempt.
SEA: The principal ports are Latakia, Tartus and Banyas. The nearest car ferry sails to Bodrum in western Turkey. Beirut, however, is served – from Greece, Cyprus and Alexandria – and Damascus can then be reached in a couple of hours by road. An attractive alternative is to take a ferry either from Italy (Venice, Ancona or Brindisi) or from Greece (Piraeus) and go as far as Turkey (Izmir, Kusadasi or Bodrum). From any of these ports it is easy to join the main road south via Aydin, Dinar, Antalya, and the steep rugged coast through Alanya, Anamur, Mersin, Tarsus, Iskenderun, Antakya, to Aleppo or Latakia. Three days should be allowed for the sea crossing and another three for the drive. Certain lines offer a mixture of cruise and car ferry; the return journey could be made via Bodrum, Rhodes, Heraklion, Santorini and Piraeus. Cruise ferries are organised by Italian, Greek, Turkish and Cypriot companies and their programmes vary year by year. Contact a travel agent for details.
RAIL: Links go via Istanbul and Ankara (Turkey). Change at Ankara for the Taurus Express to Aleppo.
ROAD: The principal international routes are from Istanbul, via the E5 road to Ankara, Adana and Iskenderun in Turkey. Enter at Bab-al-Hawa for Aleppo, or at Kassab for Latakia. From the south, the best routes are from Aqaba on the Red Sea in Jordan. To enter Syria with a car, a customs certificate must be produced; it is obtainable from Automobile Clubs and Touring Clubs against a deposit. Bus: Services are available across the desert, with routes from Aleppo and Damascus to Istanbul; Damascus to Amman; Damascus to Beirut and Tripoli; and Damascus to Riyadh.
Travel - Internal
AIR: Syrian Arab Airlines fly to Aleppo, Palmyra, Deir ez Zor, Qamishly and Latakia. In general, fares are exceedingly cheap.
RAIL: The railway extends 2200km (1364 miles). A service operates between Damascas-Aleppo-Kamechli. A second line runs between Aleppo-Latakia-Banias-Tartous-Homs-Damascas-Deraa. First class carriages are air-conditioned. There is also a connection from Haleb to the Lebanese border.
ROAD: There are 25,887km (16,086 miles) of roads. Traffic systems are poor and there are numerous accidents. Second-class roads are unreliable during the wet season. The principal route is Aleppo to Damascus and Dar’a (north–south axis). Traffic drives on the right. Bus: Services run from Damascus and Aleppo to most towns and are cheap, widely used and efficient. There are orange-and-white air-conditioned Karnak (government-operated) buses. Reservations should be made well in advance. Karnak bus routes serve their own terminals, which are usually in or near the city centres. There are also privately-run bus and microbus services which started recently all over Syria. Taxi: Shared taxis are available to all parts of the country. Service taxis (old limousines) run on major routes and cost 50-70 per cent more than Karnak buses. Regulations: Speed limits: 20kph (12mph) in the city; 80kph (50mph) on highways. Documentation: International Driving Permit required. Green Cards are not yet accepted in Syria. Insurance is required by law and a customs certificate is needed. These are available from touring and automobile clubs.
URBAN: Publicly owned bus services operate in all major towns and cities. Most buses outside the capital, however, have no signs in a European script to indicate destination or stops, which can make travelling rather difficult. Taxis are widely available. Fares should be agreed in advance and according to the meter in the cities.
TRAVEL TIMES: The following chart gives approximate travel times (in hours and minutes) from Damascus to other major cities/towns in the Syrian Arab Republic.
| | Air | Road | | Aleppo | 1.00 | 5.30 | | Latakia | 1.00 | 5.00 | | Deir ez Zor | 1.00 | 8.00 | | Qamishly | 1.00 | 8.00 | | Palmyra | 1.25 | 3.00 | | Dar’a | - | 5.00 | | Al Hasakah | - | 8.00 | | Homs | - | 1.30 | | Hama | - | 2.00 | | Tartus | - | 3.00 | Accommodation
HOTELS: While accommodation can generally be arranged on arrival from November to March, reservations are highly recommended throughout the year. Particularly during exhibitions, up-market hotels in Aleppo and Damascus are often fully booked. Tariffs are the same throughout the year. All rates are subject to a 15 per cent service charge. Grading: Hotels range from fairly low grade to luxurious 5-star accommodation. The best-quality hotels are found in Damascus, though Aleppo, Homs, Hama, Latakia and Palmyra also have luxury hotels. For further information contact the Ministry of Tourism or the Tourist Information Centre (see Contact Addresses section).
GUEST-HOUSES: Available in Damascus, Zabadani, Aleppo, Idlib, Dar’a and Bosra. Cités Universitaires offer summer accommodation.
CAMPING AND CARAVANNING: There are official campsites in Aleppo, Latakia, Tartus and Palmyra. Otherwise, camping is permitted near resorts.
The South
DAMASCUS: The capital of Syria is the world’s oldest inhabited city. A central feature of this cluttered and clamorous city is the Ummayyad Mosque, entered by passing through the Al-Hamidiyah Bazaar. The history of the mosque in many ways traces the history of Damascus; built on the site of a temple to the ancient Aramean god Haddad, the original temple was adapted and enlarged by the Romans and used as a temple to Jupiter. It was later knocked down by the Byzantines, who replaced the pagan temple with the Cathedral of John the Baptist, which was subsequently converted into a mosque to accommodate the Islamic teachings brought by the Arabs in AD 636. The mosque houses the Tomb of St John the Baptist. The Tikiyeh mosque, built in the mid-16th century, stands out by its two elegant minarets and great dome. The 18th-century Al Azem Palace is now a national museum, where there are, amongst other examples of Islamic art, beautifully illuminated copies of the Koran. Situated in old Damascus, a little way off the famous Via Recta, or the ‘Street called Straight', is the House of Hanania, where St Paul hid, using the underground chapel for worship. The church in the Damascus Wall from where St Paul escaped in a basket is also still preserved. Also worth seeing is the Long Souk (market). Other attractions include the Sayyida Zainab Shrine (the granddaughter of the Prophet Mohammad), the Tomb of Saladin at the back of the Ummayyad Mosque, and the outskirts of Damascus, especially Dummar, with seasonal entertainment and restaurants. Ghota, the fruit orchards surrounding Damascus, is at its best during the blooming of apricot, plums, cherries and other trees in early spring.
BOSRA: Bosra was the first city in Syria to become Muslim and has some of the oldest minarets in the whole of Islam. As a stopover on the pilgrimage route to Mecca, Bosra was a prosperous city until the 17th century. By then the region was becoming unsafe and the pilgrims began to take a less dangerous route further west. Bosra’s main attraction is a well-preserved Roman amphitheatre (with room for 15,000 spectators) in which a musical festival is held every two years. The eastern exit to the town is one of its last surviving vestiges of a pre-Roman civilisation. The remains of an archway dating from the first century – the Nabatean period, of which nearly all traces are now lost – are unique in Syria. The Mosque of Omar in the centre of the town (called Jami-al Arouss, ‘the bridal mosque’, by the Bosriots), used to be a pagan temple and now stands as the only mosque surviving from the early-Islamic period that has preserved its original facades.
EXCURSIONS: Further interesting sites include Salkhad, 23km (14 miles) east of Bosra, which has a citadel dating from the time of the Crusades; Al Inat, 26km (15miles) south-east of Salkhad, with its a great reservoir dug out of the rock; and the ruins at Umm Al Qotein, near the Jordanian border.
Central Region
PALMYRA: This town is set in a desert oasis. The city was ruled by the legendary Queen Zenobia, who stood against the two great empires of the Romans and the Persians. Zenobia was taken captive to Rome when the Emperor Aurelian conquered and destroyed the city in AD 272. The ruins of the Valley of Tombs, the Hypogeum of the Three Brothers, the Temple of Baal and the Monumental Arch, now a world UNESCO Heritage Site, are some of the fine remains found over a wide area of the city, prized as some of the most famous monuments to the Classical period in the Middle East.
ELSEWHERE: The third-largest city in Syria, Homs is known for its industry, and is the site of Syria’s first oil refinery. Of historical interest is the mausoleum of Khalid Ibn al-Walid.
65km (40 miles) outside Homs, Crac des Chevaliers is the most famous crusader castle in the world. A stronghold of the Hospitallers during the days of the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem (1100-1290), it maintained a garrison of a couple of thousand soldiers in peacetime. The castle, rising from an altitude of 670m (2200ft), was protected by watchtowers and supplied with food from the surrounding fertile countryside. The crusader castles of Salaheddin, near Latakia, and Markab, near Banyas, also merit a visit.
Situated on the River Orontes, 45km (28 miles) from Homs, Hama dates back to beyond 5000 BC. The Norias, gigantic wooden waterwheels, are a unique feature, still used to provide water for the city and to irrigate the many public gardens. The orchards, the Great Mosque and the Al Azem Palace’s Museum are also of interest.
The North
ALEPPO: Older possibly even than Damascus, Aleppo’s massive Citadel stands on the site of a Hittite acropolis. This UNESCO Heritage Site is one of the most magnificent examples of Islamic Arab military architecture in Syria. There are an impressive number of mosques in the city. For the tourist, the souk (market), made up of 16km (10 miles) of meandering low corridors lined with shops and bustling with activity, is probably the greatest attraction. The well preserved hammams, or public baths, are of interest, as are the ancient khans (rest houses). Some fine artefacts and historic reminders of Syria’s rich cultural past are housed in the archaeological museum. Aleppo is also the commercial and industrial centre of Syria.
LATAKIA: This is Syria’s principal port and the metropolitan city of the country. Set on the Mediterranean coast, Latakia is a major holiday resort. The city stands at the foot of the forested chain of mountains overlooking the coastal strip on one side and the edge of the Fertile Plains (the ‘Cradle of Civilisation’) on the other. There are a number of antiquities, including the ruined Temple of Bacchus and a triumphal arch.
Excursions: Attractions in the area include the town of Tartus, beaches and mountains, and the Latakia mountain resorts of Kassab and Slounfeh. Near Tartus, 10km (6 miles) inland, are the Drekish Mountains, famous for the purity of their water.
The East
The sites and cities included in this regional account are described in order of appearance as the River Euphrates flows southwestward.
Ja’bar Citadel is one of the Seleucid fortresses. Situated to the west of Raqqa, it stands on a spit of land and is reflected in the blue waters of the Euphrates.
Situated on the left bank of the river, the ancient city of Raqqa was built by Alexander the Great in the fourth century BC. Since the construction of the Euphrates Dam, it has played an important economic role in the life of modern Syria.
Halabiyé and Zalabiya are situated 40km (25 miles) from Deir ez Zor. Their ruins bear witness to their important military role during the reign of Queen Zenobia.
Deir ez Zor, considered to be the ‘pearl of the Euphrates’, is located on the right bank of the river. The garden and orchards along the banks of the Euphrates harmonise beautifully with the golden desert hues and the silver thread of the river.
Rahba Citadel, near Mayadin, was built to ensure the protection of the Euphrates route and to withstand Tatar and Mongol invasions.
The ancient city of Doura Europos (Salhieh) played an important economic and military role during the time of the Ancient Greeks, Romans, Persians and the Palmyrans.
Mari was built at a strategic point on the trade routes from Syria to Mesopotamia. The town’s oldest ruins date back 5000 years. Mari’s most impressive sight is the extraordinary Royal Palace. Built by Zimrilim, ruler of this important city-state 2000 years ago, this enormous palace boasts 300 rooms and halls. It was rediscovered in the course of excavations during the 1930s and is now protected by a modern roof.
Sport & Activities
The Mediterranean resorts offer canoeing, scuba diving and other watersports. Inland, there are numerous hotel swimming pools and public baths, particularly in Aleppo and Damascus. Many resorts now have facilities for tennis and there is a nine-hole golf club in Lebanon. Angling is most popular in the deep shoreline waters.
Social Profile
Food & Drink: There are numerous restaurants in Damascus and Aleppo serving a variety of Oriental and European dishes. National dishes are kubbeh (minced semolina and meat formed in balls and stuffed with minced meat, onion and nuts), yabrak (vine leaves stuffed with rice and minced meat), ouzi (pastry stuffed with rice and minced meat) and a variety of vegetables cooked with meat and tomato sauce, usually presented on separate plates and eaten by mixing it with cooked rice. Among these vegetables are okra, French beans and malukhiyya. Table service is the norm and a meal is paid for afterwards.
There are bars serving a wide range of alcoholic drinks. Alcohol is permitted but restrictions are imposed during Ramadan when it is illegal to drink in public from dawn to dusk, even for non-Muslims.
Shopping: Souks (markets) are the best places for shopping, notably those in Aleppo. Local handicrafts in Syria are numerous and precious, including mother-of-pearl items (such as backgammon boards), olive-wood carvings, weaving and embroidery, leather goods and gold and silver jewellery. Shopping hours: Sat-Thurs 0930-1400 and 1630-2100 (summer); Sat-Thurs 0930-1400 and 1600-2000 (winter).
Special Events: The following is a selection of the major festivals and other special events celebrated in Syria in 2003:
Apr Flower Show, Latakia. May International Flower Festival, Damascus; Desert Festival, Palmyra. Jun Syrian Theatre Festival, held in a different province each year. Jul Cotton Festival, Aleppo. Aug Friendship Festival, Latakia. Aug-Sep International Fair, Damascus. Sep Vine Festival, Swaida. Oct Festival of Folklore and Music, Bosra. Oct/Nov Film and Theatre Festival, Damascus.
Social Conventions: The Syrians take as much pride in their modern amenities as in their unique heritage and in the tradition of exquisite craftsmanship, and both should be appreciated. Visitors will enjoy the hospitality that is a deep-rooted Arab tradition and sharing the pleasures of an attractive Oriental way of life. It is customary to shake hands on meeting and on departure. A visitor will be treated with great courtesy and will frequently be offered refreshment, usually coffee. As a guest in someone’s home or, more usually, in a restaurant, visitors should respect Arab customs and traditions. A souvenir from the visitor’s home or company is well received. Conservative casual wear is suitable. Beachwear or shorts should not be worn away from the beach or poolside. Smoking follows Western habits and in most cases it is obvious where not to smoke. Smoking is prohibited in public from dawn to dusk during Ramadan. Photography: No attempt should be made to photograph anything remotely connected with the armed forces or in the vicinity of defence installations, which even includes radio transmission aerials. It is wise to take a good look at what will be appearing in the background before pointing the camera. Tipping: Often expected, especially in more expensive establishments; ten per cent is generally acceptable.
Business Profile
Economy: The main components of the Syrian economy are agriculture and oil. In the agricultural sector, cotton is the principal commodity and a key export. Wheat, barley, fruit and vegetables are the other main products, the bulk of which are grown for domestic consumption. Oil is the main industry and provides two-thirds of Syrian export earnings, although the future of the sector is limited by the relatively small size of Syria’s reserves (which are already half-exhausted). There are also reserves of phosphates (another export earner), iron ore and natural gas. The rest of the industrial economy is divided roughly between three areas: chemicals, rubber and plastics; textiles and leather goods; and food and drink. The service economy is under-developed. Tourism , in particular, has huge potential. Syria receives just 150,000 visitors annually (compared with five million to Egypt and ten million to Turkey).
At the start of the 1990s, the Syrian economy was largely state-controlled. The demise of the Soviet Union – a major trading partner – followed by the Gulf War caused serious disruption to normal trade patterns although Syria did accrue significant financial dividends from joining the US-led coalition against Iraq. It also has virtually no foreign debt, which is a major (and fairly unusual) economic advantage. Although the Government has introduced some market-oriented reforms, the economy is still highly regulated. A high priority for the new government of Basil al-Assad is to accelerate the reform process in order to attract foreign investment which Syria needs to drive future economic development: he must overcome a number of well-entrenched vested interests and monopolies in order to do so. Syria also has a young and fast-growing population: some economists estimate that the country needs annual growth of around seven per cent to absorb the new entrants into the labour force. At four per cent, current GDP growth is well short of this; unemployment is 20 per cent and rising.
Among the most worrying long-term issues is water – a precious commodity in a very arid region. A partial solution has been found through a recent agreement with Turkey over use of the northern part of Tigris/Euphrates river system. Syria’s main trading partners are Turkey and the main EU economies, particularly Germany, Italy and Spain.
Business: Formal suits are necessary for business. Business people generally speak English and French. Appointments are necessary and visiting cards are widely used. Arabs often discuss business with more than one person at a time. A list of notarised translators is available from the British Embassy. Office hours: Sat-Thurs 0830-1430. All government offices, banks and Muslim firms close Friday and remain open Sunday; Christian firms are generally open Friday and closed Sunday. During the month of Ramadan, government offices start work one hour later than usual.
Commercial Information: The following organisations can offer advice: Damascus Chamber of Commerce, PO Box 1040, 126 rue Mou’awiah, Damascus (tel: (11) 211 339; fax: (11) 222 5874; e-mail: dcc@net.sy; website: www.dcc-sy.com); or
Federation of Syrian Chambers of Commerce, PO Box 5909, rue Mousa Ben Nousair, Damascus (tel: (11) 331 1504; fax: (11) 331 1127; e-mail: ritsec@schamb.com.eg).
Conferences/Conventions: Hotels with conference facilities can be found in Damascus (The Sheraton, Cham Palace, Omayyad and Ebla-Cham), in Aleppo (Shahba-Cham), in Latakia (the Cote d’Azure) and in Hama (Apamee-Cham).
Climate
Syria’s climate is characterised by hot, dry summers and fairly cold winters. Nights are often cool.
Required clothing: Lightweights are essential in summer with protective headwear. Heavy winter clothing is advisable from November to March.
History and Government
History: Syria has been inhabited for tens of thousands of years and, as a result, has a rich cultural history. The area that is now Syria was part of the Empire of Mesopotamia around 2300 BC, during which time the cities of Ugarit (where the oldest written alphabet in the world is believed to have been developed) and Byblos grew to become powerful commercial centres. By about 500 BC, southern Syria had fallen under the control of Egypt, while the northern principalities had been welded into the Mitanni Empire. Within a few centuries, however, the Hittites from the north had overrun all of Syria, an empire that in turn collapsed in the face of invasions by the Mediterranean Sea peoples. The history of the following centuries, until the eventual destruction of the Kingdom of Judah in 539 BC, is one of a struggle by Babylonians, Canaanites, Assyrians, Phoenicians and many other tribes and empires for control of Syrian trade. Alexander the Great absorbed Syria into his empire in 333 BC, however, control of the region was disputed for the following two centuries – on this occasion between the various people trying to gain control of his inheritance.
For several centuries, the Province of Syria enjoyed the mixed blessings of the Pax Romana and was a province of the Eastern (Byzantine) Empire after the division of the Roman Empire. But even then, Syria was regarded as a frontier region, bordered to the east by the Arabs and Persians. The Persian invasions were repulsed but Syria eventually fell to the Muslims in the mid-seventh century. From then on, Syria was to be firmly part of the Muslim world, although retaining Christian and Jewish populations. Muslim control of Syria was vital to the defeat of the Christians and their expulsion from Jerusalem. However, during the 13th century, a far greater threat was the terrifying force of the Mongols. In the space of 50 years, they swept through Asia, creating an empire that stretched from Korea to Moscow. By 1260, they had overrun Syria and deposed the Abbasid Khalif. The Muslim world – and, indeed, the Christian one – seemed doomed. But in that year, the Mamluk General Baybars defeated the massive army of Hulagu at the Battle of Goliath’s Well – a victory that, in retrospect, must be seen as one of the world’s most decisive military engagements. By 1520, the region had fallen under the sway of the Ottoman Turks and, as a result, Syria prospered once – for the most part.
The 19th century was a period of increasing restlessness in the area – Napoleon’s campaign in 1799/1800, the Egyptian invasion in the 1830s and the insurrection in 1860-61 are three instances of this. The Turks were defeated in World War I and Syria was occupied by the French for a short time, before Syria was granted full independence in 1946. Three years later, the country came under the first of a series of military dictatorships that have governed the country for most of the subsequent period. As in the rest of the Middle East, Arab nationalism became a major political force during the 1950s – indeed, the influence of Nasser’s revolution in Egypt on the Syrians was so strong that Syria joined Egypt in forming the United Arab Republic in 1958. The alliance was short-lived, Syria seceding in 1961, to form the Syrian Arab Republic. The most powerful political force in Syria since then has been the Ba’ath Party or Arab Socialist Renaissance (see Iraq), which seized power in 1971, under the leadership of General Hafez al-Assad who ruled at the head of a tightly controlled dictatorship, until his death in June 2000. Assad’s main power base was the Alawite group, a Muslim sect to which ten per cent of the Syrian population is affiliated. With the tactical and strategic skill that was his trademark, Assad comfortably dealt with the challenges to his supremacy – largely through his control of the army and the country’s myriad intelligence organisations.
The major exception occurred in February 1982, when the Muslim Brotherhood – the principal opposition group confronting the Assad regime – launched a rebellion from the town of Hama. The rebellion was crushed, with several thousand deaths, by military forces led by Assad’s brother Rifaat who then controlled the country’s security forces. A few months afterwards, Assad then faced his most serious foreign policy challenge since the loss of the Golan Heights – an area bordering Syria and Israel – in the 1973 Arab-Israeli war, the Israeli invasion of Lebanon. Syria perceived Israel’s strategy as establishing a Christian-dominated client state, underpinned by Israeli military power. Syria could not hope to match the Israelis militarily but Assad nonetheless managed to manoeuvre Syria into a dominant position in Lebanon. This he achieved by supporting the main Lebanese Muslim militias, Amal and Hezbollah, and then introducing a substantial military presence of its own, remaining careful to avoid direct confrontation with the Israelis (see Israel and Lebanon). In 1984, the Israelis moved into a self-styled ‘security zone’ south of the Litani River and in 1999, after a decade and a half of attritional guerrilla warfare with the Syrian-backed Hezbollah, the Israelis pulled out altogether. Syria, meanwhile, had established a political and military dominance over Lebanon, which continues to this day. Apart from anything else, this served to confirm that Syria was indispensable to a comprehensive settlement in the Middle East. Syria’s relations with the West reached a nadir during the late 1980s. Its traditional close relations with the Soviet Union became less important with Damascus’ direct implication in a number of terrorist incidents around that time and its support for groups like Hezbollah, categorised by the West as terrorist organisations. However, the 1991 Gulf War came as an unexpected blessing, with the USA eager to attract Arab states into the anti-Iraqi coalition. As an implacable opponent of Saddam Hussein’s Iraq – dating back to the 1960s ideological split in the Ba’ath movement – the Syrians were happy to oblige and into the bargain secured substantial financial support and the guarantee of a free hand in Lebanon. But Syria has yet to secure its main objective – the return of the Israeli-occupied Golan Heights – and has made clear that unless the issue is settled, Syria will not follow Egypt and Jordan in reaching a formal peace with the Jewish state.
In June 2000, after years of failing health, President Assad died. Having fallen out with his brother, Rifaat, some years earlier, and with the accidental death of his eldest son, Basil, in 1994, Assad had selected his second son, Bashar, as heir. While domestic policy has seen something of a relaxation under Bashar, Western hopes that Syria would pursue a more pro-Western line have proved misguided – in the vocabulary of the US Bush administration, Syria is a ‘state of concern’ (one level below the ‘axis of evil’). Nonetheless, In October 2001, despite opposition from the US, Syria became a member of the United Nations Security Council, as its principal Asian representative. However, as a non-permanent member, Syria lacks the power of veto. The Syrians have provided some assistance to the Western ‘War Against Terror’ in the form of intelligence on the al-Qaeda set-up, although they have been firm opponents of any prospective ‘Gulf War II’, the Anglo-American plan to invade Iraq and depose Saddam Hussein. This has little to do with support for Iraq – with whom relations are a little better than they were a decade earlier – and is mainly concerned with the West’s backing for Israel’s hard line on the Palestinian issue and consistent hostility (as they see it) towards Damascus itself.
Government: The 1973 constitution allows for a single-chamber legislature, the 250-member People’s Assembly. Executive power is vested in the president who is directly elected for a seven-year term.
Copyright © 2003 Columbus Publishing Ltd.
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