Turkey Overview ‘Where Europe and Asia come together’ Knocking at Europe’s door yet on the threshold of Asia, Turkey is truly a land of contrasts. Here you can scale the icy heights of remote Mount Ararat in search of Noah’s Ark, cross the historic Euphrates and Tigris rivers, follow in the footsteps of St Paul or simply relax on the golden Mediterranean sands of Patara beach. Vibrant Istanbul, straddling the blue waters of the Bosphorus separating Europe from Asia, beckons with its skyline pierced by countless minarets, chaotic bazaars and a history redolent with harem intrigue and despotic Sultans. In Turkey, you can also cruise along more than 1000km (620 miles) of Mediterranean coastline, past secluded coves, rocky headlands and pretty fishing villages, or explore a hinterland rich in the wonderfully preserved remains of Graeco-Roman cities such as Ephesus. For the adventurous, the austere beauty of the Anatolian plateau, the surreal rock-chimney landscape of Cappadocia and the atmospheric ruins of the enigmatic Hittites await discovery. Here, too, is the unique experience of watching the dervishes whirl in pious Konya. With a code of hospitality nurtured by their Islamic beliefs yet with a remarkable tolerance of other customs, the Turks offer a warm welcome wherever you travel – be it sipping sweet black tea or thick coffee with friendly villagers or sharing a bottle of raki over mezes (hors d’oeuvres) with cosmopolitan Istanbul ‘city slickers’. Kate Clow General Information Area: 779,452 sq km (300,948 sq miles). Population: 64,385,000 (1999). Population Density: 82.6 per sq km. Capital: Ankara. Population: 2,937,524 (1997). GEOGRAPHY: Turkey borders the Black Sea and Georgia and Armenia to the northeast, Iran to the east, Iraq to the southeast, Syria and the Mediterranean to the south, the Aegean Sea to the west and Greece and Bulgaria to the northwest. Asia Minor (or Anatolia) accounts for 97 per cent of the country and forms a long, wide peninsula 1650km (1025 miles) from east to west and 650km (400 miles) from north to south. Two east–west mountain ranges, the Black Sea Mountains in the north and the Taurus in the south, enclose the central Anatolian plateau, but converge in a vast mountainous region in the far east of the country. It is here that the ancient Tigris and Euphrates rivers rise. Government: Republic since 1923. Head of State: President Ahmet Necdet Sezer since 2000. Head of Government: Prime Minister Abdullah Gül since 2002. Language: Turkish. Kurdish is also spoken by a minority in the southeast. French, German and English are widely spoken in cities and tourist areas. Religion: Muslim with a small Christian minority. Turkey is a secular state which guarantees complete freedom of worship to non-Muslims. Time: GMT + 2 (GMT + 3 from last Sunday in March to Saturday before last Sunday in October). Electricity: 220 volts AC, 50Hz. Communications:   Telephone IDD is available. Country code: 90. Outgoing international code: 00. There is an extensive internal telephone network, but often an interpreter will be needed for more remote areas. To phone from PTT telephone booths, which are found in all areas, telephone cards and tokens are used. Local, intercity and international calls can be made from all PTT offices. Mobile telephone GSM 900 and 1800 band networks exist. Main network providers include Turkcell (website: www.turkcell.com.tr) and TELSIM Mobil Telekomuniksyon (website: www.telsim.com.tr). Coverage is available in most urban areas. Fax All hotels and PTT offices have facilities. Internet Main ISPs include: EfesNet (website: www.efes.net.tr). Internet cafes exist in main urban areas. Telegram These may be sent from all post offices. Post Airmail to Europe takes three days. Turkish post offices are recognisable by their yellow PTT signs. Major post offices open Mon-Sat 0800-2000 and Sun 0900-1900. Small post offices have the same opening hours as government offices. It is also possible to use the ‘Valuables Despatch Service’ for valuable belongings or important documents. Press The main newspapers are Hürriyet, Cumhuriyet, Sabah and Milliyet. English-language daily newspapers include The Turkish Daily News. BBC World Service and Voice of America frequencies: From time to time these change. BBC (website: www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice): MHz 15.58 11.76 9.410 1.413 Voice of America (website: www.voa.gov): MHz 15.21 11.82 9.760 1.197 Passport/Visa   Passport Required? Visa Required? Return Ticket Required? British Yes 2/4 Yes Australian Yes 4 Yes Canadian Yes 4 Yes USA Yes 4 Yes OtherEU 1 2/4 Yes Japanese Yes 3 Yes PASSPORTS: Passport valid for at least six months from date of arrival in Turkey required by all, except the following nationals: 1. Belgium, France, Germany, Greece, Italy, Luxembourg, Malta, The Netherlands, Spain and Switzerland who can enter with a national ID card. VISAS: Required by all except the following: (a) 2. nationals of EU countries for stays of up to three months (except nationals of Austria, Belgium, Ireland, Italy, The Netherlands, Portugal, Spain and the UK who do need visas, but can obtain them at point of entry for a fee, see Sticker-type entry visas below); (b) 3. nationals of Argentina, Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Bolivia, Bulgaria, Chile, Ecuador, El Salvador, Fiji, Grenada, Honduras, Hong Kong (SAR), Iceland, Iran, Israel, Jamaica, Japan, Kenya, Korea (Rep), Liechtenstein, Malaysia, Malta, Mauritius, Monaco, Morocco, New Zealand, Nicaragua, St Lucia, San Marino, Saudi Arabia, Seychelles, Singapore, Switzerland, Trinidad & Tobago, Tunisia, Uruguay and Vatican City for stays of up to three months; (c) nationals of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Indonesia and Romania for stays of up to two months; (d) nationals of Costa Rica, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Macau (SAR), Maldives, Norway and South Africa for stays of up to one month; (e) tranist passengers continuing their journey by the same of first connecting aircraft, provided not leaving the airport and in possession of confirmed onward tickets. Sticker-type entry visas: Tourists and business visitors from the following countries do require visas and can obtain sticker-type entry visas at the point of entry for a fee. Prices are dependent on nationality (for British nationals, the cost is £10, and for US nationals, the cost is US$45): (a) 4. Australia, Austria, Belgium, Brazil, Canada, Ireland, Italy, Malta, The Netherlands, Portugal, Spain, the UK and the USA for visits not exceeding three months; (b) Albania, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Estonia, Hungary, Jordan, Latvia, Lithuania, Moldova, Norway, Poland, Russian Federation, Slovak Republic, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Ukraine, Uzbekistan, and Yugoslavia (Serbia and Montenegro) for visits not exceeding one month; (c) Georgia and Guatemala for visits not exceeding 15 days. Types of visa and cost: Tourist/Work Single-entry visa; Tourist/Work Multiple-entry visa; Education, Residence, Study and Long Term Multiple-entry visa; and Transit visa. Prices vary according to nationality. Some visas must be obtained in advance. Contact the Consulate (or Consular section at Embassy); see Contact Addresses section. Validity: Dependent on nationality of applicant. Application to: Consulate (or Consular section at Embassy); see Contact Addresses section. Application requirements: (a) Valid passport. (b) One recent passport-size photo. (c) Application form. (d) Fee (varies for different nationals), payable by postal order and cash only. (e) Registered, stamped, self-addressed envelope if applying by post. (f) For business visas, a letter of invitation from a company in Turkey. For other types of visas, enquire at the Embassy. Note: Some nationals may also need to show proof of sufficient funds for the duration of their stay; enquire at the Embassy. Working days required: Dependent on nationality of applicant. Minimum of one day but some applications may be referred to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in Ankara which may take much longer. Temporary residence: Apply to the Turkish Consulate General (see Contact Addresses section) or to the Turkish Diplomatic Mission in the country of residence. Money Currency: Turkish Lira (TL). Notes are in denominations of TL10,000,000, 5,000,000, 1,000,000, 500,000, 250,000 and 100,000. Coins are in denominations of TL100,000, 50,000, 25,000, 10,000 and 5000. Currency exchange: All exchange certificates and purchase receipts must be retained to prove that legally exchanged currency was used. Money and travellers cheques can be exchanged at all PTT branches. Many UK banks offer differing rates of exchange depending on denominations of Turkish currency being bought or sold. Check with banks for details and current rates. Credit & debit cards: American Express, Diners Club, MasterCard and Visa are accepted. Check with your credit or debit card company for details of merchant acceptability and other services which may be available. Travellers cheques: Can be cashed immediately upon proof of identity. However, it may take several days to cash cheques from private accounts. To avoid additional exchange rate charges, travellers are advised to take travellers cheques in Pounds Sterling or US Dollars. Currency restrictions: There are no restrictions on the import of local or foreign currency, though visitors bringing in a large amount of foreign currency should obtain a written declaration from the Turkish authorities. No more than the equivalent of US$5000 in local currency may be exported. Foreign currency may be exported up to US$5000, but no more than the amount imported and declared. Exchange rate indicators The following figures are included as a guide to the movements of the Turkish Lira against Sterling and the US Dollar: Date May ’02 Aug ’02 Nov ’02 Feb ’03 £1.00= 2,063,537.10 2,496,558.10 2,498,612.5 2,584,222.60 $1.00= 1,416,000.00 1,641,500.00 1,580,000.0 1,623,000.00 Banking hours: Mon-Fri 0830-1230 and 1330-1700. Duty Free The following goods may be imported into Turkey without incurring customs duty: 200 cigarettes and 50 cigars or 200g of tobacco and 200 cigarette papers or 50g of chewing tobacco or 200g of pipe tobacco or 200g of snuff tobacco*; 5 bottles (1l) or 7 bottles (700ml) of wine and/or spirits; reasonable amounts of coffee and tea; 5 bottles (up to 120ml each) of perfume; gifts up to a value of €236 (or equivalent). Note: *(a) A further 400 cigarettes, 100 cigars and 500g of pipe tobacco may be imported if purchased on arrival at a duty-free shop. (b) Very specific amounts and categories of personal belongings may be imported duty free, according to a list available from the Turkish Embassy, Financial and Customs Counsellor’s Office. Prohibited imports: Narcotics, sharp implements, weapons and one set of cards. Restricted exports: (a) The export of souvenirs such as carpets is subject to customs regulations regarding age and value. (b) The export of antiques is forbidden, according to a list available from the Turkish Embassy, Financial and Customs Counsellor’s Office. (c) Minerals may only be exported under licence from the General Directorate of Mining Exploration & Research. Public Holidays Jan 1 2003 New Year’s Day. Feb 12 Kurban Bayrami (Feast of the Sacrifice). Apr 23 National Sovereignty and Children’s Day. May 19 Commemoration of Atatürk and Youth and Sports Day. Aug 30 Victory Day. Oct 29 Republic Day. Nov 26-28 Ramazan Bayrami (End of Ramadan). Jan 1 2004 New Year’s Day. Feb 2 Kurban Bayrami (Feast of the Sacrifice). Apr 23 National Sovereignty and Children’s Day. May 19 Commemoration of Atatürk and Youth and Sports Day. Aug 30 Victory Day. Oct 29 Republic Day. Nov 14-16 Ramazan Bayrami (End of Ramadan). Note: Muslim festivals are timed according to local sightings of various phases of the moon and the dates given above are approximations. During the lunar month of Ramadan that precedes Ramazan Bayrami, Muslims fast during the day and feast at night and normal business patterns may be interrupted. Some restaurants are closed during the day and there may be restrictions on smoking and drinking. Generally, centres of tourism are unaffected. Some disruption may continue into Ramazan Bayrami itself. Ramazan Bayrami and Kurban Bayrami may last anything from two to ten days, depending on the region. For more information, see the World of Islam appendix. Health   Special Precautions Certificate Required Yellow Fever No No Cholera No No Typhoid and Polio 1 N/A Malaria 2 N/A 1: Outbreaks of typhoid may occur in rural areas. 2: Potential malaria risk (exclusively in the benign vivax form) exists from May to the end of October in the Çukorova/Amikova areas and in southeast Anatolia, Adana and Antalya (Side). There is no malaria risk in the main tourist areas in the west and southwest of the country. Food & drink: Tap water is usually chlorinated in larger towns and cities, but should not be assumed to have been so treated: if used for drinking or making ice it should have first been boiled or otherwise sterilised. If a water source bears the words içilmez, it means that it is not for drinking; sources labelled içilir, içme suyu or içilebilir are safe to drink. Bottled spring water is widely available. Milk is pasteurised. Eat only well-cooked meat and fish, preferably served hot. Other risks: Hepatitis A, B and C are present. Cutaneous and visceral leishmaniasis, meningitis and TB occur. Rabies is present. For those at high risk, vaccination before arrival should be considered. If you are bitten, seek medical advice without delay. For more information, see the Health appendix. Health care: Turkey has a large health sector. A great number of Turkish doctors and dentists speak a foreign language, particularly at major hospitals. Private health insurance is recommended; ensure that it covers Asiatic as well as European Turkey. Travel - International AIR: Turkey’s national airline is Turkish Airlines (TK). Other airlines serving Turkey include Austrian Airlines, Lufthansa and Swiss. Approximate flight times: From Istanbul to Frankfurt/M is 2 hours 45 minutes, to London is 3 hours 30 minutes and to New York is 11 hours. International airports: Ankara (ESB) (Esenboga) is 35km (22 miles) northeast of the city. THY buses go from the city 1hr 30 minutes before domestic flights and 2 hrs 15 minutes before international flights. There is a taxi service available into the city. Airport facilities include incoming and outgoing duty-free shops, bank/bureau de change, and restaurants and bars. Istanbul (IST) (Atatürk, formerly Yesilkoy) is 24km (15 miles) west of the city (travel time – 30-50 minutes). A coach (THY bus) goes every 15 minutes to the THY terminal. There are taxi services to the city. Airport facilities include incoming and outgoing 24-hour duty-free shop, bank/bureau de change, bar, restaurant, and car hire (Avis, Budget, Hertz and Europcar). Izmir (IZM) (Adnan Menderes). A THY bus leaves from the city 1 hr 15 minutes before departure. Airport facilities include bank/bureau de change, bar and restaurant. Sabiha Gökçen (SAW) is 40km (25 miles) from the city, on the Asian side. It is Turkey’s newest international airport, and opened in 2001. There are shuttle bus services to the city (travel time – 30-45 minutes) and to Atatürk International Airport (travel time – 60-70 minutes). Taxis are available 24 hours a day. Facilities include duty-free shops, bank, ATMs, business centre and restaurants/cafes. There are other international airports at Adana, Trabzon, Dalaman and Antalya. Departure tax: US$50 is levied only on Turkish nationals not resident overseas departing from Turkey. SEA: Major ports are Antalya, Bandirma, Istanbul, Izmir, Marmaris and Mersin. Turkish Maritime Lines (TML), the national shipping organisation, and a number of cruise lines run services to Turkey, including: Costa, CTC, Epirotiki, Golden Sun Cruises, ‘K’ Lines, Linblad Expeditions, Norwegian and Royal Olympic. Several ferry routes are available: To/from Italy: Ferries operate between Venice–Izmir, Venice–Antalya/Marmaris, Venice–Istanbul via Pireaus and Brindisi–Cesme. To/from Cyprus: Three routes exist on which sea buses, together with car and passenger ferries, operate: Alanya–Girne and Tasucu–Girne and Gazimagosa–Mersin. To/from Greece: There are privately operated ferry lines between Turkey and the Greek islands: Lesbos–Ayvalik, Chios–Cesme, Samos–Kusadasi, Cos–Bodrum, Rhodes–Marmaris, Sömbeki–Datça. Note: All ships, including private yachts, arriving in Turkish waters must go to one of the following ports of entry: Akcay, Alanya, Anamur, Antalya, Ayvalik, Bandirma, Bodrum, Botas (Adana), Canakkale, Cesme, Datca, Derince, Didim, Dikili, Fethiye, Finike, Giresun, Güllük, Hopa (Artvin), Iskenderun, Istanbul, Izmir, Kas, Kemer, Kusadasi, Marmaris, Mersin, Ordu, Rize, Samsun, Sinop, Söke, Tasucu (Silifke), Tekirdag, Trabzon and Zonguldak. RAIL: There are connections from London (Victoria and Liverpool Street) via Hook of Holland and Cologne to Istanbul on the Istanbul Express, which also carries cars from several other European cities. There is a weekly sleeper from Moscow. InterRail tickets are available in the European part of Turkey as far as Istanbul. Other international rail routes go to Germany, Greece, Bulgaria, Yugoslavia and Georgia. For more information contact Turkish Railways (TCDD) in Istanbul (tel: (212) 527 0050/1 or reservations: (212) 520 6575; website: www.tcdd.gov.tr). ROAD: There are roads from the CIS, Greece, Bulgaria and Iran. Drivers may either choose the northern route of Belgium, Germany, Austria, Hungary, Romania, and then Bulgaria, or the southern route through Belgium, Austria and Italy with a car-ferry connection to Turkey. Coach: There are regular services between Turkey and Austria, France, Germany and Switzerland as well as Jordan, Iran, Saudi Arabia and Syria. Eurolines, departing from Victoria Coach Station in London, serves destinations in Turkey. For further information, contact Eurolines (4 Cardiff Road, Luton, Bedfordshire, L41 1PP; tel: (08705) 143 219; fax: (01582) 400 694; website: www.eurolines.com or www.gobycoach.com). Travel - Internal Note: Although most visits to Turkey are trouble-free, tourists travelling to the south-east of the country should exercise caution due to some local unrest. Advice should be sought before travel to or through this region. AIR: Turkish Airlines provides an important network of internal flights from Istanbul, Ankara, Izmir, Adana, Trabzan, Dalaman, and Antalya to all of the major Turkish cities. The airline (tel (UK office): (020) 7766 9300; fax: (020) 7976 1738; website: www.turkishairlines.com) offers reductions of 60 per cent on international flights (with the exception of Middle Eastern destinations) and ten per cent on domestic flights to holders of International Student Travel Conference (ISTC) cards. SEA: Turkish Maritime Lines offers several coastal services with their Adriatic Line subsidiary, providing excellent opportunities for sightseeing; they also operate a car ferry between Mersin and Magosa. There are also services between Istanbul and Izmir, with overnight accommodation and ferry routes along Turkey’s northern Black Sea coast. A frequent car ferry crosses the Dardenelles at Gallipoli, from Canakkale to Eceabat and Gelibolu to Lapseki. There are frequent seabus services from Bostanci, Kadiköy, Kartal, Yalova and Büyükada Island to Auça, Bakirköy, Karaköy and Yenikapi. Turkish Maritime Lines offers discounts of 15 per cent on single and 25 per cent on return passages for international routes and 50 per cent for domestic routes to holders of ISTC cards. RAIL: Fares are comparatively low. Many trains of the Turkish Railways (TCDD) have sleeping cars, couchettes and restaurant cars, but there is no air-conditioned accommodation. Fares are more expensive for express and mail trains, even though express trains are relatively slow, and some routes are indirect. Steam engines, such as the Anatolia Express, which traverses eastern Turkey, are retained for tourist trains on some routes. Tickets can be purchased at TCDD offices at railway stations and TCDD-appointed agents. TCDD offers discounts of 20 per cent to holders of ISTC cards. Children under seven travel free; children aged between seven and 11 pay half fare. Discount fares are available for students (ten per cent off), groups (30 per cent off for groups of 24 or more), roundtrips (20 per cent off) and sports teams (50 per cent off for groups of five or more). ROAD: There is an extensive road maintenance and building programme; 1400km (900 miles) of motorway is under construction. Traffic drives on the right. In case of an accident, contact the Turkish Touring and Automobile Club (Turkiye Turing ve Otomobil Kurumu), Head Office, Sanayi Sitesi Yani Fort Levent, Istanbul (tel: (212) 282 8140; fax: (212) 282 8042). Coach: Many private companies provide frequent day and night services between all Turkish cities. Services are often faster than trains and competition between operators has led to lower fares. Tickets are sold at the bus or coach companies’ branch offices either at stations or in town centres. One should shop around for the best prices. Coaches depart from the bus stations (otogar) in large towns and from the town centre in small towns. Car hire: Both chauffeur-driven and self-drive cars are available in all large towns. All international companies are represented. Documentation: An International Driving Permit is required for visits of over three months. Green Card International Insurance, endorsed for Turkish territory in both Europe and Asia, and Turkish third-party insurance (obtainable from insurance agencies at frontier posts) are also required. Cars can be brought into Turkey for a maximum of six months in one year. On entering, an entry-exit form is filled out. For longer stays, it is necessary to apply to either the Ministry of Finance and Customs or the Turkish Touring and Automobile Club. URBAN: Bus and trolleybus: Extensive conventional bus (and some trolleybus) services operate in Istanbul, Ankara and Izmir. There are buses in all other large towns. These are generally reliable, modern and easy to use, although publicity is non-existent. Tickets are bought in advance from kiosks and dropped into a box by the driver. Taxi: There are many types of taxi, share-taxi and minibus in operation. Taxis are numerous in all Turkish cities and towns and are recognisable by their chequered black and yellow bands. Metered taxis are available. For longer journeys, the fare should be agreed beforehand. A dolmus is a collective taxi which follows specific routes and is recognisable by its yellow band. Each passenger pays according to the distance travelled to specific stops. The fares are fixed by the municipality. The dolmus provides services within large cities to suburbs, airports and often to neighbouring towns. This is a very practical means of transport and much cheaper than a taxi. Taxis may turn into a dolmus and vice versa according to demand. Ferry: There are extensive cross-Bosphorus and short-hop ferries between the parts of Istanbul. Metro: There are plans to construct a metro system in Ankara. TRAVEL TIMES: The following chart gives approximate travel times (in hours and minutes) from Ankara to other major cities/towns in Turkey. Air Road Rail Istanbul 0.45 6.00 7.00 Izmir 0.50 7.00 10.00 Antalya 1.00 8.00 - Adana 0.55 6.00 13.00 Erzurum 1.15 11.00 18.00 Van 1.15 15.00 23.00 Trabzon 1.40 3.00 - Mugla 1.25 10.00 - Accommodation HOTELS: In recent years, Turkey has made a considerable effort to develop its hotel facilities. A certain number of hotels throughout the country are registered with the Ministry of Tourism as offering satisfactory facilities. They abide by certain regulations and standards of facilities, and are given the name ‘Touristic’. There are other establishments registered with local authorities, and these, too, correspond to a certain standard as regards facilities and services. There is also a national hotel association: TUROB, Yildiz Posta Cad. Dedemen Ticaret Merkezi, 52/1 Kat. 6, Esentepe Istanbul (tel: (212) 274 3353 or 275 0550; fax: (212) 275 4454; e-mail: turob@sim.net.tr; website: www.turob.org). It is compulsory for establishments to have a book in which guests can register remarks, suggestions and complaints. Complaints can also be made directly to the Ministry of Tourism (see Contact Addresses section), or to the Ministry of Tourism Directorate of the city concerned. Grading: Hotels are graded from 1 star (1 yildizli) to 5 stars (5 yildizli). Classification is based on the standard of service and facilities. Motels and holiday villas are first class (1 sinif) or second class (2 sinif). GUEST-HOUSES: Guest-houses (pensions) can be found in holiday resorts and major towns. SELF-CATERING: Villas and apartments can be rented. CAMPING/CARAVANNING: There are numerous sites, but facilities are generally limited. YOUTH HOSTELS: Holders of ISTC cards, International Youth Hostel Federation cards and those registered as ‘student’ or ‘teacher’ on their passports can benefit from the youth holiday opportunities available in Turkey. Some Turkish organisations, such as Turkish Airlines, recognise the ISTC card and accordingly grant reductions to holders. Further information can be obtained from Yücelt Interyouth Hostel, Caferiye Sok No 6/1, Sultanahmet 34400, Istanbul (tel: (212) 513 6150-1; fax: (212) 512 7628; e-mail: info@yucelthostel.com; website: www.yucelthostel.com). Introduction Straddling Europe and Asia, Turkey has enormously diverse scenery, with rolling central plains, soaring mountains, desert and orchards, white sand beaches and towering sea cliffs. The Hittites, Greeks, Romans, Byzantines, Selçuks, Ottomans, Armenians and a host of smaller civilisations have all added intricate layers of architecture, art and culture, creating a mosaic as rich as any of the gilded Byzantine glories. Today, Turkey’s thousands of kilometres of magnificent coast, sunshine and fine food have turned it into a major tourist destination. Much more than that, it is still fascinating culturally – a modern, westernised country, with a largely Muslim population, cautiously spanning the divide between religions and cultures. Istanbul The only city in the world to span two continents, Istanbul is a bustling, cosmopolitan place, officially founded by Emperor Constantine in AD 326 on the back of a much older village. It remained capital of the Byzantine and Ottoman empires right up until 1923, its illustrious past leaving a rich legacy of mosques, churches, museums and magnificent palaces, coupled with bustling bazaars and a vibrant street life. Istanbul is made up of three distinct cities. The old city of Istanbul is decorated with parks and gardens. Amongst hundreds of fascinating sights, the main attractions include Topkapi, the sumptuous palace of the Ottoman sultans overlooking the Sea of Marmara and the Bosphorus; the delicately decorated Blue Mosque, the only mosque in the world with six minarets; the vast dome of Aya Sophia, built in 536 as a Byzantine cathedral, later a mosque and now a museum and, underground, the Yerebatan Sarayi, a vast Byzantine cistern supported by 336 Corinthian columns. Nearby, the commercial heart of the city, the Grand Bazaar, is still a captivating sight for shoppers and window-shoppers alike, while further along the narrow inlet of the Golden Horn, the Kariye Camii has some of the finest Byzantine mosaics to survive today. Across the Golden Horn, ‘modern’ Istanbul, Beyoglu, dates back to the foreign cantonments of the 13th century. This is where you find the restaurants, hotels, and modern shops, while the truly modern areas around Taksim are home to cultural centres, exhibition halls and office blocks. THE BOSPHORUS: The shores of both old and new cities lie along the north, European bank of the Bosphorous, the narrow straits that divide Europe from Asia. Two massive suspension bridges now span these overcrowded waters, in which tour boats, ferries, supertankers and fishing vessels vie for space in the overcrowded waters. From all of them you see the Istanbul skyline, one of the most dramatic in the world. Tours up the Bosphorous include several notable buildings, including the Sultans’ 19th-century Dolmabahçe Palace. On the far, Asian, shore lie Uskudar (Scutari), where Florence Nightingale nursed the sick during the Crimean War; the charming Ottoman summer palace of Beylerbeyi; and a whole series of delightful villages full of fish restaurants and fine old mansions, built by the 19th-century aristocracy. Looming at each other across the water are several Byzantine and Ottoman castles including Rumelihisar and Anadoluhisar. THE SEA OF MARMARA: West of Istanbul, the provinces of Thrace and Marmara embrace the Sea of Marmara, while the towns of Gelibolu and Çanakkale mark the entrance to the Dardanelles, the narrow straits leading through to the Mediterranean. This was the site of the infamous Gallipoli landings during World War I, which led to the deaths of nearly 250,000 British, Turkish and Anzac troops and shot Turkish General Mustafa Kemal (later known as Ataturk) to fame. Inland, the cities of Edirne, in Thrace, and Bursa, in Marmara, are both fascinating historic towns with a wide range of magnificent architecture, such as the Selimiye Camii in Edirne, said to be the masterwork of Turkish imperial architect, Mimar Sinan. Just outside Bursa, the Uludag National Park is a wonderful forested mountain reserve, with excellent walking in summer and skiing in winter. A short way south of Gallipoli, are the ruins of ancient Troy. Of the nine levels of the excavated settlement mound, the sixth is supposed to be the Troy depicted in Homer’s Iliad. The Aegean Coast The magnificent coast of ancient Ionia, a crucible of western civilisation, boasts fine beaches and many important historical sites. The attractive tourist towns of Ayvacik, Ayvalik and Behramkale are good places from which to visit the magnificent Temple of Athena at Assos. Further south lie the ruins of the great city of Pergamum (modern Bergama), famous in antiquity for its splendid library. It is here that you will find the Sanctuary of Asclepieion and two fine temples, the Acropolis and the red-brick Basilica. Izmir, the birthplace of Homer, is Turkey’s third city and an important port. It is a modern metropolis set in a curving bay surrounded by terraced hillsides. As a result of earthquakes and a great fire, there are only a few reminders of old Smyrna – Kadifekale, the fourth-century fortress situated on top of Mount Pagos. The fortress affords a superb view of the city and the Gulf of Izmir, the Roman agora with some well-preserved porticos and Statues of Poseidon and Artemis. Çesme is one of the many popular resorts in the Izmir region. It has excellent beaches, thermal springs and a 15th-century fortress. The port of Sigacik, the ruins of the ancient Ionian city of Teos and the sandy beach at Akkum are all between Izmir and Çesme. A short way inland is another fine Graeco-Roman city, Sardis (modern Sart), with a beautiful Marble Court, Temple of Artemis and a first-century AD synagogue. The remains of the Hellenistic and Roman city of Ephesus (modern Selçuk), rumoured to have been founded in the 13th century BC, lie at the foot of Mount Pion. Carefully restored and now one of the most spectacular ancient cities in the world, top sights within the huge archaeological area include the Grand Theatre, where St Paul preached to the Ephesians, the second-century Temple of Serapi, the elegant façades of the Temple of Hadrian and the Library of Celsus. The site of Meryemana, reputed to be the house of the Virgin Mary, lies very close to Ephesus in the small vale of Mount Bulbul Dagi (Nightingale Mountain). It has become a world-famous shrine, attracting thousands of pilgrims each year. The nearby town of Selçuk is home to the Ephesus Museum and Basilica of St John, said to be the last home of John the Baptist. The ruins of Priene, Miletus and Didyma are also of great interest and, like Ephesus, are within easy reach of Kusadasi, an attractive resort surrounded by sandy bays. Inland are two more fine historic cities, the atmospheric Heraklea ad Latmos, and Aphrodisias. Southwestern Turkey This magnificently scenic and historically fascinating area, where the southern Aegean meets the Mediterranean is known popularly as the Turquoise Coast, due to the intense colour of the sea. Tourism in the region is dominated by several major beach resorts, each with a series of satellite villages, and a great many large hotels. Rocky cliffs are interspersed by lavish white sand beaches. Each small town and fishing harbour has a variety of pleasure boats, fish restaurants, bars and nightlife, while the larger hotels offer a wide range of watersports. And if that is not enough, the area is densely packed with ancient cities, and there is excellent walking in the hills behind the coast. Bodrum (birthplace of Herodotus, known as the father of history) is dominated by the magnificent 15th-century crusader Castle of St Peter, now home to a fascinating Museum of Underwater Archaeology. Both Bodrum and Marmaris, set in a deep fjord-like inlet, have wild, noisy nightlife and a wide variety of boat trips for daytime hangover cures. Destinations include the Greek islands of Kos (from Bodrum) and Rhodes (from Marmaris). From Marmaris, you can also reach the charming fishing village of Datça and the ruins of Knidos and the reedy ruins of Kaunos, near the small resort of Dalyan. Further along the Mediterranean coast are the small port town of Fethiye, with its imposing Lycian rock tombs, and Ölü Deniz, a stunning crystal-clear lagoon with a beautiful beach, surrounded by pine-covered mountains. The lagoon is protected from rampant commercial development by its status as a national park although the surrounding valley is completely overwhelmed by tourist development. Continuing east along the coast, there are several relatively small and charming resorts such as Patara, with its 18km (11 miles) beach, charming little Kalkan and Kas, one of the most upmarket resorts on the Turkish coast, Olympos, a backpacker’s paradise and Kemer, where mass-market all-inclusive hotels hold sway. Between them are a wide range of historic sights, including the ancient cities of Patara, Xanthos, Myra, Olympos (home of the chimaera, living flame erupting eerily from the rock) and Phaselis. Inland, there is excellent walking at Saklikent and in the Olympos National Park. Further away, other worthwhile stops include the pretty old town of Mugla, the carpet-making centre of Milas, and Pamukkale, near Denizli, famous for its spectacular calcified waterfall and thermal waters, used since Roman times for their therapeutic powers. Pamukkale also contains the ruins of the Roman city of Hierapolis. The Mediterranean Coast: With sunshine for most of the year and a magnificent coastline, the western Mediterranean Coast is a popular holiday area. It is also a region steeped in history and legend, dotted with important sites and great medieval castles. Situated on a cliff promontory, Antalya is a popular resort, boasting a picturesque walled old town and harbour, Kaleiçi, the monumental Hadrian’s Gate, Kesik Minare and Yivli Minare mosques and Hidirlik Kulesi, the round Roman tower, and a superb Archaeological Museum. With its mix of charming small guest-houses and modern hotels, it is the ideal starting point for tours to the outlying Roman cities of dramatic Termessos, in the mountains behind the city; Perge, a well-preserved and atmospheric place with tall Hellenistic walls and streets which still bear the marks of chariot wheels; and Aspendos, home to a remarkable second-century AD amphitheatre, still used for live performances during the annual festival. Turkey’s finest Roman aqueduct lies to the north of the city. Belek, 30km (19 miles) east of Antalya, has two championship golf courses, is the habitat of hundreds of species of birds, and one of several local breeding grounds for the rare leatherback turtle. In Side, now a thriving seaside resort, the Greek enclosure walls are still virtually undamaged. The town also boasts an exquisite fountain, a theatre, two agoras and Roman baths, great beaches and lively nightlife. Nestling at the foot of a rocky promontory and crowned by a Selçuk fortress, the town of Alanya has some fine beaches and a great many very large resort hotels. A spectacularly scenic road connects Anamur, striking for its wave-swept Selçuk castle and ancient city, and Silifke, dominated by yet another vast fortress. The museum in ancient Silifke contains finds from the many archaeological sites in the vicinity. Mersin, built on a site dating back to Paleolithic times, is a major port. Nearby, parts of Tarsus date back to biblical times, when St Paul was a child here and Anthony met Cleopatra in the main square. The prosperous city of Adana, in the middle of the flat Cukurova plain, is the centre of Turkey’s cotton industry, and home to an imposingly huge modern mosque. The massive Taskopru Bridge, built by Hadrian in the second century, the ancient covered bazaar and nearby Crusader castles and Hittite settlements are all interesting sites. The road from heavily polluted Iskenderun leads through the Belen Pass to Antakya, the biblical city of Antioch, where St Peter founded the first Christian community. The grotto where he preached can be seen just outside the town. The Black Sea Coast This rugged, mountainous region of Turkey has a wild beauty, but lacks the wealth of historical and climatic attractions of the rest of the country, while the thunderous main road leading west from the CIS destroys much of the local atmosphere. Despite the variable weather, there are several coastal resorts with good, sandy beaches. These include, from west to east, Kilyos, Sile, Akcakoca, Sinop (also very interesting historically), Unye, Ordu and Giresun, many of which are sadly tacky, catering to the poorer end of the home-grown tourist market. There are also several fascinating historic towns such as Safranbolu, a short distance inland, whose traditional Ottoman architecture has been deemed worthy of UNESCO World Heritage Status; coastal Amasra with Hellenistic walls, Roman ruins, Byzantine churches, and 14th-century Genoese fortresses; and Amasya, a dramatically sited town which was capital of the short-lived Pontic Kingdom (founded in 120 BC) and has a wide range of ancient, Byzantine and Ottoman buildings, including the rock tombs of the Pontic kings. Keep to the side roads if you want charm, between the two regional centres of Samsun and Trabzon. Samsun has an important place in modern history as the War of Independence began here in 1919, which is reflected by one of the finest monuments in Turkey, though little remains to testify to its ancient origins. In Trabzon (the sadly shabby Trebizond of history), the ruins of a Byzantine fortress can still be seen, together with many fine buildings including the Fatih Camii, built as a cathedral during the 200-year rule of the Comnene family (11th-century upstarts who overthrew Byzantine rule and carved themselves a small kingdom). The spectacular 14th-century Monastery of the Black Virgin at Sumala, 54km (34 miles) from Trabzon, is set into the face of a sheer cliff, 300m (1000ft) above the valley floor, and contains some magnificent frescoes. East of Trabzon, there are few large towns and tourism concentrates on the fascinating lifestyle of the small Laz and Hopa peoples, hiking in the remote, beautiful Kaçkar Mountains and the region of Artvin, once the centre of Turkish Armenian culture and home to several magnificent century churches dating from the ninth to the 11th centuries. Central Anatolia The hub of this vast, central plateau – the cradle of the ancient Hittite and Phrygian civilisations – is the modern metropolis of Ankara. Kemal Atatürk supervised the construction of Ankara, a capital to replace Istanbul, in this hitherto underpopulated region during the 1920s and 1930s. Since then, it has grown into a thriving, trendy city with a population of over two million that has grown to rival Istanbul’s sophistication, and is much more interesting than is often imagined. The Anitkabir, Atatürk’s solemnly imposing mausoleum, dominates the new city. Ankara was, however, built on the site of more ancient settlements and it is fitting that the Museum of Anatolian Civilisations, built under the ramparts of the Citadel, should house a magnificent collection of Neolithic and Hittite artefacts. There are also reminders of the area’s more recent past as part of the Roman and Selçuk empires. More modern additions to the cityscape include the huge, elegant Kocatepe Mosque and the Atakule, a high tower with a sightseeing platform and restaurant. Southwest of Ankara are Afyon, centre of the legal opium industry, and a fine old Ottoman town; Yazilikaya (Midassehir), home of the legendary golden king and his giant mausoleum; Kutahya, an attractive old city at the centre of the Turkish ceramic trade; and the ‘lake district’, a pretty, green area of interlocking fresh and brackish lakes that are an excellent birding habitat. There are several interesting small towns along the lake shores, such as Isparta, famous for its roses, and Egirdir, founded by the Hittites, but with a fine collection of Ottoman and Greek houses. Ruined cities of note in the area include Antioch ad Pisidia, the recently reconstructed Sagalassos and Kremna, where the earthworks built by the Roman siege are still clearly visible. Due south of Ankara, past the vast salt lake of Tuz Gölü, Konya is a former Selçuk capital and one of the great religious centres of Turkey, home of the Mevlana Tekkesi, the monastery and mausoleum of Mevlana Celâddin Rumi, one of Islam’s most celebrated mystics and founder of the Order of Whirling Dervishes. Other places of interest include the13th-century Alâeddin Mosque, the Karatay Medrese (now an excellent Ceramics and Tile Museum) and the Iplikci Mosque, Konya’s oldest structure. South of the city, Catalhöyük is the second oldest town in the world, dating back to the sixth milliennium BC, while to the east, Binbirkilise is an area stuffed with ‘1001’ Byzantine chapels and churches, most now sadly in a desperate state of repair. East of Ankara, the Hittite state archives were found in Bogazkale (Hattusas) in 1906, and contained within the Bogazkale–Alacahöyük–Yazilikaya triangle are the most important sites of the Hittite Empire. Sungurlu is a good base for visitors to this fascinating but underdeveloped region. CAPPADOCIA: Southeast of Ankara, Cappadocia is a spectacular, almost surreal landscape of rock and cones, capped pinnacles and fretted ravines. Dwellings have been hewn from the soft, volcanic rock since 400 BC, and the elaborate cave systems have sheltered generations of persecuted settlers. Today, it is a fascinating mix of truly magnificent scenery (as beautiful in the winter snow as in summer), an excellent destination for outdoor activities from mountain biking and hiking to hot air ballooning and one of the most compelling historic and artistic regions in this culturally rich country. Many people still live, at least partially, in cave dwellings and in the main tourist centres, there are several charming small hotels with cave rooms. The main towns in the region are Nevsehir and Urgup. Göreme is probably the biggest attraction, with over 30 magnificently frescoed Byzantine rock churches open to the public. Zelve has a huge, somewhat eerie, underground monastic complex. The villages of Ortahisar and Uchisar, clustered around rock pinnacles and crowned by citadels, offer excellent views. There are over 400 underground cities in the area; two of the biggest and most exciting are Kaymakli and Derinkuyu, with up to eight floors and complex systems of apartments, public rooms and streets that could house literally hundreds of people. In the northern part of the area, Avanos is a pretty little town with a thriving local ceramics industry. A short distance west of the main area of Cappadocia, the 10 km (6 mile) long Ihlara Canyon is another Byzantine religious hideout, with around 60 churches, many of them still painted, carved into the walls of an idyllic green Shangri La. The Eastern Provinces The vast, empty expanse of eastern Anatolia differs profoundly from the rest of the country. The landscape has a desolate beauty, with ochre red plains and fertile valleys, lakes, waterfalls, snowcapped peaks and, in the far south, dusty deserts. This again is a fascinating cultural and historic area, stuffed with Biblical and Islamic history, Kurdish and Armenian cultures, fine mosques, palaces and monuments. The region has suffered a degree of political instability and lack of security for several years and is only just reopening to tourists, who should take up-to-date advice before visiting the area. It is far less developed for tourism than western Turkey; accommodation can be very basic and is often hard to find. Eastern Turkey can be said to begin along a rough line from Samsun, on the Black Sea Coast, through the Anatolian towns of Tokat and Sivas, noted for their Selçuk architecture, to the busy industrial town of Gaziantep in the south. Erzurum, the largest town in the northeast, was one of the eastern bastions of Byzantium for many centuries, and has mosques and mausolea from the Selçuk and Mongol eras, Byzantine walls and two Koranic colleges characterised by minarets and finely carved portals. The frontier town of Kars, to the north of Erzurum, is dominated by a formidable 12th-century Georgian fortress. The ruins of the tenth-century Ani lie east of Kars. On the eastern border with Armenia, Agri Dagri is the biblical Mount Ararat where, according to legend, Noah’s Ark came to rest. Below it lie the imposing palace and mosque of Ishak Pasha at Dogubeyazit. The walled town of Van, on the eastern shore of the immense Lake Van, was an important Urartu fortress from 800-600 BC. The citadel dominates the ruins of Selçuk, Ottoman mosques and many rock tombs. On the island of Akdamar, in Lake Van, is the enchanting tenth-century Church of the Holy Cross. Further south, the twin rivers, the Tigris and Euphrates, cradle an agriculturally rich oasis within the desert. This is Biblical Mesopotamia and, some say, the original Garden of Eden. Today, the GAP Project is creating an enormous series of interlinked lakes and canals to create hydro-electricity and irrigation, to the fury of neighbouring countries who also rely on the water, and the local Kurkish people who see their homeland slipping from their grasp forever. Its centrepiece, the Atatürk Dam, is the fourth largest in the world. The southeast is filled with ancient cities, traditional cultures and compellingly beautiful, if often forbidding, landscapes. Places of note include Sanliurfa, site of the ancient pools of Abraham; the strange beehive houses of Harran, from where Abraham decided to move to the land of Canaan; Nemrut Dagi, the home of the colossal stone statues erected by King Antiochus I in the first century BC; Diyarbakir, built in the fourth century and surrounded by forbidding triple walls of black basalt; and the white-coloured medieval architecture and Roman citadel of Mardin. Ski Resorts Turkey may not be the obvious ski destination, but it does have a number of winter sports resorts, generally located in forested mountains of average height. The core season is from Jan–March. The following ski centres are easily accessible by road or Turkish Airlines domestic flights: Uludag: 36km (22 miles) south of Bursa (Marmara); Saklikent: 48km (30 miles) north of Antalya, in the Bakirli Dagi mountain range (Mediterranean Coast); Koroglu: on the Istanbul–Ankara highway, 50km (30 miles) from Bolu and the Black Sea coast; Palandoken: 5km (4 miles) from Erzurum (central-eastern Anatolia); Sarikamis: near Kars (far eastern Anatolia); Erciyes: 25km (15 miles) from Kayseri (Cappadocia). Sport & Activities Mountaineering: Turkey has a number of mountain ranges with peaks ranging from heights of 3250m (10,660ft) to the 5165m (16,945ft) of Mount Agri (Ararat), the highest mountain in Anatolia, which provide excellent climbing possibilities for both the novice and more expert climber. Permission is required from the Turkish Mountaineering Club. Skiing: Winter sports resorts in Turkey are generally located in forested mountains. Ski centres are often easily accessible by road or by Turkish Airlines domestic flights. Most resorts are in the north (near Ankara) and the western interior (see Resorts & Excursions section). Watersports: The Mediterranean coast, particularly Izmir, has very warm waters and watersports are widely available. Trekking: Turkey’s vast interior of unspoilt nature, mountains, plateaux, villages and ancient ruins is perfect for exploring on foot. Golf: There are currently five championship courses in Turkey; one of which is at the Klassis resort close to Istanbul, the other four of which are in the resort of Belek in the Antalya region. Social Profile Food & Drink: Turkish food combines culinary traditions of a pastoral people originating from Central Asia and the influences of the Mediterranean regions. Lamb is a basic meat featured on all menus, often as shish kebab (pieces of meat threaded on a skewer and grilled) or doner kebab (pieces of lamb packed tightly round a revolving spit). Fish and shellfish are very fresh and barbunya (red mullet) and kiliç baligi (swordfish) are delicious. Dolma (vine leaves stuffed with nuts and currants) and karniyarik (aubergine stuffed with minced meat) are other popular dishes. Guests are usually able to go into a kitchen and choose from the pots if they cannot understand the names of the dishes. There are also a wide range of Turkish sweets and pastries including the famous Turkish Delight (originally made from dates, honey, roses and jasmine bound by Arabic gum and designed to sweeten the breath after coffee). Table service is common. Ayran (a refreshing yoghurt drink), tea, and strong black Turkish coffee are widely available. Turkey is a secular state and alcohol is permitted, although during Ramadan it is considered polite for the visitor to avoid drinking alcohol. Turkish beer, red and white wines are reasonable. The national drink is raki (anisette), known as ‘lion’s milk’ which clouds when water is added. Drinking raki is a ritual and is traditionally accompanied by a variety of meze (hors d’oeuvres). Nightlife: There are nightclubs in most main centres, either Western or Oriental, with music and dancing. There are theatres with concerts in Izmir, Istanbul and Ankara and most towns have cinemas. Turkish baths (hamam) are popular. Shopping: Istanbul’s Kapali Carsi Bazaar has jewellery, carpets and antiques for sale. Turkish handicrafts include a rich variety of textiles and embroideries, articles of copper, onyx and tile, mother-of-pearl, inlaid articles, leather and suede products, jewellery and, above all, carpets and kilims. Shopping hours: Mon-Sat 0900-1300 and 1400-2000 (closed Sunday). Istanbul covered market: Mon-Sat 0800-1900. Special Events: For a detailed list of special events contact the Turkish Tourist Office (see Contact Addresses section). The following festivals are held annually: Jan Camel Wrestling Festival, Selçuk. Mar Ankara International Film Festival; 1915 Sea Victory Celebration, Çanakkale. Apr Traditional ‘Mesir’ Festival, Manisa. Apr 23 International Children’s Day, Ankara. Apr-May Ankara International Arts Festival. May Efes International Festival of Culture & Tourism, Selçuk; International Nysa Culture & Art Festival, Sultanhisar; Yunus Emre Culture & Art Week, Eskisehir; Aksu Culture & Art Festival, Giresun; International Music and Folklore Festival, Silifke; International Yachting Festival, Marmaris. May-Jun International Asia-Europe Biennial, Ankara. Jun Bartin Strawberry Festival; International Tea Festival, Rize; International Offshore Races, Istanbul–Izmir; Foça Music, Folklore and Watersports Festival; Marmaris Festival; Bergama Festival; Atatürk Culture Festival, Amasya; Kafkasör Culture & Art Festival, Artvin; International Kus Cenneti Culture & Tourism Festival, Bandirma; Çesme Sea and Music Festival. Jun-Jul Istanbul International Art & Culture Festival; Traditional Kirkpinar Wrestling, Edirne; Ihlara Tourism and Art Week, Aksaray. Jul Erzurum International Congress; Tourism & Culture Festival, Iskenderun; International Folk Dance Festival, Samsun; Ceramic Festival, Kütahya; Nasreddin Hoca Festival, Aksehir; Hittite Festival, Çorum. Aug Troy Festival, Çanakkale; Insuyu Festival, Burdur; Hacibektas Veli Commemoration Ceremony; Mengen Chefs Festival, Bohn. Sep Izmir International Fair; Ertugrul Gazi Commemoration Ceremony, Sögüt; Seyh Edibâli’i Commemoration and Culture Festival, Bilecik; GAP Culture & Art Festival, Gaziantep; Javelin Games, Konya; Kemer Carnival; International Meerschaum (White Gold) Festival, Eskisehir; Sivas Congress Culture & Art Week; International Grape Harvest Festival, Ürgüp; International Fair, Mersin; Yagci Bedir Carpet Festival, Sindirgi Balikesir. Sep-Oct International Plastic Arts Festival, Istanbul; International Akdeniz Song Contest, Antalya; Culture & Art Festival, Diyarbakir; Mersin Art & Culture Festival. Oct Altin Portakal Film Festival; Ahi Brotherhood Cultural Week, Kirsehir; International Bodrum Cup; International Gullet Festival, Bozburun. Nov International Yacht Race, Marmaris. Dec International St Nicolas Symposium, Demre; Mevlana Commemoration Ceremony, Konya. Social Conventions: Shaking hands is the normal form of greeting. Hospitality is very important and visitors should respect Islamic customs. Informal wear is acceptable, but beachwear should be confined to the beach or poolside. Smoking is widely acceptable but prohibited in cinemas, theatres, city buses and dolmuses (collective taxis). Tipping: A service charge is included in hotel and restaurant bills. Business Profile Economy: Turkey is self sufficient in basic foodstuffs including maize, sugar, wheat and barley. Cotton, tobacco, fruit, vegetables and nuts are grown for both domestic consumption and export. A variety of livestock is reared. The agricultural sector still accounts for 13 per cent of total economic output and is a major employer, especially of women in the workforce, 60 per cent of whom work on the land. There is a sizeable mining industry producing copper, chromium, borax and, to a lesser extent, bauxite and coal. Manufacturing has grown significantly during the last 20 years with textiles, food-processing, oil-refining, chemicals and the production of iron and steel having emerged as the most important industries. Tourism dominates the service sector after a phase of rapid expansion and serves as a key source of foreign exchange. In 1999, Turkey received almost seven million visitors, contributing more than US$5 billion to the economy. Recent economic performance has been poor – the economy has been contracting throughout the last four years (by nine per cent during 2001) while inflation hovered around 60 per cent. There were distinct signs of improvement during 2002, however, as GDP grew by four per cent and inflation dropped to 47 per cent (World bank estimates for 2003 expect inflation to fall further to the mid-20s). Relations with the IMF have been difficult, especially following the Turkish decision to drop a reform programme based on stabilisation of the Turkish lira (whose value has been in near freefall for much of the last two years). Political instability has undermined government attempts to privatise the large state sector, which still controls much of the country’s infrastructure as well as key industries and utilities. Turkey has long harboured an aspiration to join the European Union, having lodged its original application in 1963. Poor economic management, the unresolved situation in Cyprus, perennial disputes with Greece and a bad human-rights record combine to thwart any prospect of EU membership. Nonetheless, Europe has increasing influence over the country; Turkish trade patterns have shifted from the Middle East in favour of Europe and hundreds of thousands of Turkish workers are employed across the EU. Germany, Italy, France and the UK are now Turkey’s principal trading partners; outside Europe, the USA and Saudi Arabia are also important. To the east, Turkey has built up significant economic links with the former Soviet republics of Central Asia. Business: A formal suit or jacket and tie should always be worn for business. English is widely spoken in business circles, although an effort by the visitor to speak a little Turkish is appreciated. The majority of people in business value punctuality and visiting cards are widely used. Office hours: Mon-Fri 0830-1200 and 1330-1730. Summer: In the Aegean and Mediterranean regions of Turkey, government offices and many other establishments are closed during the afternoon in the summer months. The summer hours are fixed each year by the provincial governors. Commercial Information: The following organisation can offer advice: Union of Chambers of Commerce, Industry, Maritime Commerce and Commodity Exchanges of Turkey (UCCET), Atatürk Bulvar 149, Bakanliklar, 06640, Ankara (tel: (312) 417 7700; fax: (312) 418 3268; e-mail: info@tobb.org.tr; website: www.tobb.org.tr). Conferences/Conventions: Istanbul and Antalya are the most popular venues, followed by Ankara, Marmaris and Bodrum. There are many four- and five-star hotels, which provide facilities and can host conferences and meetings to international standards. Contact UKTAS, International Congress Centre Inc, Harbiye 80230, Istanbul (tel: (212) 296 3055; fax: (212) 224 0878; website: www.icec.org). The Crowne Plaza Istanbul has a conference centre with facilities for up to 1000 people (tel: (212) 560 8110; fax; (212) 560 8155). Climate Temperatures in Ankara vary between -4C °(25ºF) and 30°C (86ºF). Marmara and the Aegean and Mediterranean coasts have a typical Mediterranean climate with hot summers and mild winters. Required clothing: Light- to medium-weights and rainwear. History and Government History: Originally inhabited by a variety of different peoples – Hittites, Urartians, Phyrgians and Lydians – Turkey, or Asia Minor as it was called during much of the pre-modern period, was, for over 1000 years, the heartland of the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire, with Constantinople as its capital. Founded by Constantine the Great in AD 330, Constantinople survived the collapse of the Western Empire in the fifth century. It was the capital from which the brilliant and enigmatic Emperor Justinian (527-565) launched his ambitious projects to reunite the old Roman Empire, the western provinces of which had been occupied by Germanic people from northern Europe. The Byzantine Empire, from the death of Justinian until its eventual fall in 1453, was engaged in a long retreat in the face of numerous enemies, mainly the forces of Islam. However, the Byzantines took advantage of the success of the First Crusade (1096-1100), whose armies re-took many Byzantine possessions in Asia Minor, Syria and Palestine, although, as later events were to prove, the interests of the Byzantines and of the Christian Crusader states in Palestine were not always identical. The Byzantine State never fully recovered and on many occasions during the next three centuries, a final defeat was only prevented by the disunity of its enemies and particularly by the massive fortifications of the city of Constantinople. The conquest of Constantinople in 1204 – the only time the fortifications were breached – was followed by one of the most savage and rapacious sackings in the history of the world. The treasures of Byzantium were beyond count or value and many priceless works of art were removed to Europe (mainly to Venice) during this time. The Byzantines set up a rival capital at Nicea, until Constantinople was retaken in 1261. However, by this time, the empire had effectively lost control of most of its territories and, by the 14th century, Byzantine control of Asia Minor was little more than an empty theory. From the 11th century onwards, the Asiatic area of Turkey known as Anatolia had also been affected by upheavals and conquests from the east. Successive invasions from Central Asia led to the Islamic Turkification of the region, the real power fast becoming the Ottomans’ – a name derived from their 14th-century leader, Osman Gazi, who scored a decisive victory against the Byzantines at the Battle of Baphaeon in 1301. The Ottomans steadily expanded their territorial control from Turkey itself, constructing the Ottoman Empire, which at its zenith in the mid-16th century – a period associated with the reign of Suleyman the Magnificent – covered southeast Europe (including the Balkans and Hungary), North Africa (as far as Morocco), the Crimea and Georgia, the Levant, Syria, Iraq and most of the Arabian peninsula. The most famous conquest, from a symbolic and strategic point of view, was that of Constantinople itself in 1453; with its fall, the Roman Empire, in a strictly legalistic sense, finally came to an end. The territorial ambitions of the Ottomans regarding control of the Mediterranean and Central Europe brought the empire into conflict with the major European powers of the day, particularly the Hapsburgs. The Venetians and later the Russians were almost constant enemies of the Ottomans during the late-17th and 18th centuries, during which time the empire sank into decline. In the late-18th century, attempts were made by some rulers to reform the empire but to little effect. The diplomatic history of Central Europe in the early modern period is highly complex and the Ottoman Empire became increasingly a pawn and victim of the various power struggles. Its disintegration and the forces of nationalism unleashed as a consequence caused schisms and conflicts that linger to this day throughout southern Europe and the Middle East. Turkey was known as ‘the sick man of Europe’ during this period. Turkish history can thereafter be characterised by a constant struggle between the forces of absolutism and reform. In 1914, the country became embroiled in World War I – on the side of Germany. The following year saw one of the most ignominious episodes in Turkish history, when over a million Armenians were driven into the desert and murdered by Turkish troops. Although it is fiercely denied by the Turkish authorities, there is compelling evidence that this was an officially sponsored and systematic policy of genocide. After the war, most of the Ottoman possessions came under British or French control, with the support of the newly formed League of Nations. In Turkey itself, the Ottoman Dynasty was overthrown in 1923, by a revolutionary movement led by Mustafa Kemal, better known as Atatürk (‘the father of the Turks’), who established a single-party republic with himself at the head. The period after the War of Independence saw sweeping social reforms and economic modernisation, including the abolition of the Islamic social infrastructure and the development of a manufacturing industry. Atatürk’s successor, Ismet Inönü, kept Turkey out of World War II (except for the last four months) and introduced multiparty politics. The first elections were held in 1950. There have since been two prolonged periods of military rule, the second ending with elections in 1983, won by Turgut Özal and the Motherland Party. Martial law, however, remained in force in many provinces until 1987. Turkey joined NATO in 1952 and, since the lifting of suspensions with the end of military rule, is once more a full and active member of the OECD and the Council of Europe, as well as being an associate member of the EU. Turkey has been pursuing full EU membership since the early 1980s, with varying degrees of enthusiasm. The new government, elected in November 2002 (see below), is especially keen, although it faces serious obstacles in the form of a historically poor human rights record – especially with regard to the treatment of the country’s Kurdish minority – and the failure of repeated efforts to reach a political settlement in Cyprus. (see Cyprus). Important as relations with Europe are, Turkish foreign policy has major interests elsewhere. The collapse of the Soviet Union has given the country a key political and economic role in Central Asia, where Turkey has historic cultural and linguistic links with several countries. These have assumed much greater importance in Western strategic thinking since the events of 11 September 2001 and the war against the Taleban regime in Afghanistan. At the beginning of 1990, political tension in the region was heightened by the onset of the Armenian/Azeri conflict. Turkey was the first country to recognise the independence of Azerbaijan and has provided consistent diplomatic support for the Azeris against Armenia. Turkey has also sought closer political and economic links with the ‘Stans’ – the five Central Asian ex-republics of the former Soviet Union, mainly populated by people from Turkic ethnic groups. Several of these view Turkey as a suitable model to pursue in the course of their own development. Moreover, Turkey has a key strategic position on the northern edge of the ever-turbulent Middle East; in particular, it has a shared border with Iraq and provided essential bases for the US-led campaign against Iraq during the 1991 Gulf war. Since then, these same bases have been essential to the UN’s enforcement of economic sanctions and the ‘no fly’ zone (see Iraq). The government accrued benefits in the form of financial assistance and had a free hand in dealing with the insurgency of the Kurdish Workers Party – best known by its own acronym, PKK. The party was engaged in an armed struggle to secure civil and political rights for the Kurdish ethnic minority concentrated in the eastern part of the country. With a serious prospect of another US-led war against Iraq in 2003, Turkey will once again be called upon to play its part. The government has major reservations, however, about the future complexion of a post-Saddam regime in the country and is concerned to limit any Kurdish influence. Six months after the end of the war, in October 1991, national elections were held in Turkey. The election was notable for the emergence of the Islamic party, Refah (Welfare), as a major electoral force for the first time. This caused enormous concern, both inside and outside the country. Ever since, Turkish domestic politics have dominated by the struggle between Islamic groups and the traditional secular parties. The latter, notably Dogru Yol Partisi (DYP, True Path), Anavatan Partisi (AP, Motherland) and Demokratik Sol Partisi (DSP, Democratic Left), had traditionally dominated the political scene but were also the subject of widespread disillusion among the electorate for their inertia, corruption and petty rivalries. Refah, by contrast, were notable for their relative probity and administrative competence. Furthermore, in the background was the National Security Council, the military-dominated body, which in reality is the final arbiter of Turkish politics. Following the October 1991 poll, Suleyman Demirel, leading the DYP, formed a government in alliance with several small parties. Demirel took over the presidency, after the death of Turgut Özal, in June 1993. He was replaced by the former economy minister, Tansu Ciller, who became Turkey’s first female premier. Ciller led a minority government for the next two years. Following its collapse in December 1995, new elections returned Refah to the position of largest party. True Path and Motherland could have excluded by forming a coalition but this was thwarted by the intense personal animosity between the parties’ leaderships. Refah duly took office, although, far short of an overall majority, was steadily undermined over the following months, mainly through the efforts of the National Security Council. Over the next four years, Turkey had six different governments, with all the major parties, including Refah, at the helm at one time or another. The year of 1999 opened with the collapse of this system and a debate among the generals as to whether to allow the scheduled April general election to go ahead. Under some international pressure, they did so and saw the Democratic Left Party, led by veteran Bulent Ecevit, returned to power. With the support of several small parties, Ecevit has been able to form a stable government. The mood in most of Turkey at the time of the poll had been boosted by the capture, trial and sentencing of the leader of the Kurdish PKK, Abdullah Ocalan, following his expulsion from long-term exile in Syria. The government compounded its success when the PKK declared a ceasefire shortly afterwards. But it soon had more important things on its mind, when a series of earthquakes in the populous northwest of the country killed tens of thousands and wrought massive destruction. And the Kurdish issue has since re-emerged, with a bitter debate over the proposed construction of the Ilusu Dam on the Euphrates river in the Kurdish heartland of southeastern Turkey. If built as planned, the dam will destroy countless sites of unique historical value. In May 2000, Suleyman Demirel’s presidential term of office came to an end. His replacement was a former constitutional court judge, Ahmet Necdet Sezer, who took office in May 2000. Elections for the national assembly were held once again, in November 2002. The overwhelming victor was the recently formed Adalet ve Kalkinma Partisi (AKP, Justice and Development Party), which holds to a moderate Islamic position and is led by Recep Erdogan. The party gained a substantial majority of seats in the National Assembly – just short of the two-thirds needed to effect constitutional changes. True Path, Motherland and the DSP did not win a single seat between them. Turley can now look forward to a period of stable, single-party government, although the AKP will be careful to limit its pursuit of Islamic policies to keep the National Security Council on its side. That said, the generals know that if they intervene overtly, Turkey’s EU aspirations will be set back once again. Erdogan himself is barred from office because of a previous jail term – AKP deputy leader Abdullah Gul holds the premiership. Nevertheless, almost immediately, Erdogan opened talks with the EU about future Turkish membership. The main powerbrokers of the EU are split on the issue – France and Germany are against, while Britain, Italy and Spain are in favour. (The Americans are also strongly in favour of Turkish membership). The Turks have been told that formal accession negotiations can begin in late 2004 or early 2005, although the country will be subject to human rights ‘audit’, which it will need to pass, along with a settlement of the Cyprus problem and the usual economic criteria. Government: Under the constitution of 1987, legislative power is vested in a single chamber, the 550-member National Assembly, which is directly elected by proportional representation for a five-year term. The National Assembly elects both a prime minister (normally head of the largest party in the assembly) and a president, who is head of state and serves a seven-year term, between whom executive powers are shared. Copyright © 2003 Columbus Publishing Ltd.