United States Overview ‘A country straight out of the movies!’ Mickey Mouse, Miami Vice, Sleepless in Seattle… thanks to cinema and TV we all have impressions of the United States of America. Yet nothing can prepare you for your first glimpse of Manhattan’s unforgettable skyline, your first ride in a yellow cab, the ubiquitous hamburger joints, the vast expanses of prairie, the sweet strains of New Orleans jazz or the neon-lit excesses of Las Vegas. The USA is a huge country to explore, with 50 states to choose from, flanked by two oceans and covering an incredibly varied terrain. For five centuries, since the ‘New World’ discoveries of Christopher Columbus, people from every corner of the globe have come here in search of ‘the American Dream’. Between them, they have created the richest, most powerful country on earth, and a fascinating melting pot of cultures and traditions. Tourism centres mainly on the subtropical states of Florida, California and Hawaii, the winter ski resorts and the huge metropolises. But it is the astonishing, vast landscapes that make the USA truly distinctive – spectacular National Parks like Yosemite and the Everglades, rugged ice fields, the Great Lakes and the desert plains – and such awe-inspiring sights as the Grand Canyon and the Rocky Mountains should be on every visitor’s must-see list. As Gertrude Stein remarked: “In the United States there is more space where nobody is than where anybody is. That is what makes America what it is.” Teresa Fisher General Information General: Information on the USA is provided in two parts: a general overview and individual State profiles, each of which has its own section. Area: 9,809,155 sq km (3,787,319 sq miles). Population: 281,421,906 (2000). Population density: 28.7 per sq km. Capital: Washington, DC. Population: 572,059 (2000). Twenty other cities have a population larger than that of Washington, DC. New York is the largest city, with a population of over eight million. Los Angeles, Chicago, Houston, Philadelphia, Phoenix, San Diego, Dallas and San Antonio had populations of over one million in 2000. GEOGRAPHY: Covering a large part of the North American continent, the USA shares borders with Canada to the north and Mexico to the south and has coasts on the Atlantic, Pacific and Arctic oceans, the Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico. The State of Alaska, in the northwest corner of the continent, is separated from the rest of the country by Canada, and Hawaii lies in the central Pacific Ocean. One of the largest countries in the world, the USA has an enormous diversity of geographical features. The climate ranges from subtropical to Arctic, with a corresponding breadth of flora and fauna. For a more detailed description of each region’s geographical characteristics, see the individual State sections. Government: Federal Republic since 1789. Gained independence from the UK in 1776. Head of State and Government: President George W Bush since 2001. Language: English, with significant Spanish-speaking minorities. Religion: Protestant with Roman Catholic, Jewish and many ethnic minorities. In large cities, people of the same ethnic background often live within defined communities. Time: The USA is divided into six time zones: Eastern Standard Time: GMT - 5 (GMT - 4 from first Sunday in April to last Sunday in October). Central Standard Time: GMT - 6 (GMT - 5 from first Sunday in April to last Sunday in October). Mountain Standard Time: GMT - 7 (GMT - 6 from first Sunday in April to last Sunday in October). Pacific Standard Time: GMT - 8 (GMT - 7 from first Sunday in April to last Sunday in October). Alaska: GMT - 9 (GMT - 8 from first Sunday in April to last Sunday in October). Hawaii: GMT - 10. Note: When calculating travel times, bear in mind the adoption of Daylight Saving Time (DST) by most States in summer. From the first Sunday in April to the last Sunday in October, clocks are put forward one hour, changing at 0200 hours local time. Regions not observing DST include most of Indiana, all of Arizona and Hawaii. Electricity: 110/120 volts AC, 60Hz. Plugs are of the flat two-pin type (grounded three-pin plugs are also widely used). European electrical appliances not fitted with dual-voltage capabilities will require a plug adaptor, which is best purchased before arrival in the USA. Communications:   Telephone Full IDD is available. Country code: 1. Outgoing international code: 011. For emergency police, fire or medical services in major cities, dial 911. The following area codes denote toll-free (freephone) numbers: 800, 855, 866, 877 and 888. Mobile telephone GSM 1900 network, with a mixture of cellular and digital (especially in major centres) coverage. Network operators offering the closest to nationwide coverage include Verizon (formerly Bell Atlantic and GTE, now in joint venture with Vodafone; website: www.verizonwireless.com), Cingular (joint venture of SBC and Bell South; website: www.cingular.com) and AT&T Wireless (website: www.attws.com). Fax There are bureaux in all main centres, and major hotels also have facilities. Fax services are very widely available. Internet There are Internet cafes in most urban areas. ISPs include America Online (website: www.aol.com), Cable & Wireless (website: www.cw.com), AT&T Business Internet Services (website: www.attbusiness.net) and MSN (website: www.msn.com). Telegram These can be sent through all telegraph and post offices. Post There are numerous post offices throughout the states. Stamps can also be bought at stamp machines in hotels and shops and at ATMs, at extra cost. Airmail to Europe takes up to a week. Post office hours: 0900-1700 (24 hours at main offices in larger cities). Press The most influential papers are The New York Times, Washington Post, Los Angeles Times and the Wall Street Journal. Owing to the high degree of self-government of each State, newspapers tend to be regionalised, although recent economic pressures have resulted in large-scale mergers. Even so, the USA publishes more newspapers than any other country, and has perhaps the bulkiest Sunday newspapers in the world, particularly the Sunday edition of The New York Times. BBC World Service frequencies: From time to time these change (website: www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice). MHz 15.19 12.10 7.740 5.975 Passport/Visa   Passport Required? Visa Required? Return Ticket Required? British Yes No/2/3 Yes Australian Yes No/2 Yes Canadian Yes No/1 No USA N/A N/A N/A OtherEU Yes No/2 Yes Japanese Yes No/2 Yes Restricted entry: The following are not eligible to travel visa free under the Visa Waiver Program and must apply for visas before travelling: (a) people afflicted with certain serious communicable diseases; (b) anyone who has been arrested or who has a criminal record; (c) narcotics addicts or abusers and drug traffickers; (d) anyone who has been deported from or denied admission to the USA. PASSPORTS: Valid passport required by all. Note: (a) For nationals of countries under the Visa Waiver Program, passport must be valid for at least 90 days from date of entry (except for nationals of Andorra, Brunei and San Marino, who must hold passports valid for at least six months from date of departure from the USA). (b) For all other nationals, passports must be valid for six months from date of departure from the USA. VISAS: Required by all except the following: (a) citizens of countries under the Visa Waiver Program (see 2. below); (b) 1. nationals of Bermuda (including other nationals resident in Bermuda) and Canada, provided holding valid passports; (c) nationals of Mexico, provided holding a valid passport and a US Border Crossing Card (form DSP-150, which replaces forms I-186 or I-586); (d) transit passengers continuing their journey by the same or connecting aircraft, within eight hours or on the next available flight, provided holding valid onward or return documentation and not leaving the airport. However, the following nationals are not eligible to transit without a visa: Afghanistan, Angola, Bangladesh, Belarus, Bosnia & Herzegovina, Burma, Burundi, Central African Republic, China (PR), Columbia, Congo (Dem Rep), Cuba, India, Iran, Iraq, Korea (Dem Rep), Libya, Myanmar, Nigeria, Pakistan, Serbia, Sierra Leone, Somalia, Sri Lanka and Sudan. Visa Waiver Program: (a) 2. The following nationals do not require a visa under the Visa Waiver Program: Andorra, Australia, Brunei, EU countries (except nationals of Greece, who do require a visa), Iceland, Japan, Liechtenstein, Monaco, New Zealand, Norway, San Marino, Singapore, Slovenia, Switzerland and Uruguay. To qualify for visa-free travel under the Visa Waiver Program, nationals must travel on a passport (valid for at least 90 days from date of entry, except for nationals of Andorra, Brunei and San Marino whose passports must be valid for six months after the departure date) for holiday, transit or business purposes only and for a stay not exceeding 90 days; hold a return or onward ticket if travelling by air or sea (if onward tickets terminate in Mexico, Canada, Bermuda or the Caribbean Islands travellers must be legal permanent residents of those countries); if entering the USA by air or sea, hold a completed form I-94W and enter aboard an air or sea carrier participating in the Visa Waiver Program (lists of participating air or sea carriers are available from most travel agents or the carriers themselves); if entering the USA by land from Canada or Mexico, hold a completed I-94W issued by Immigration at the port of entry and a US$7 fee. (b) 3. Holders of UK passports with the endorsement British Subject, British Dependent Territories Citizen, British Protected Person, British Overseas Citizen or British National (Overseas) Citizen do not qualify for the Visa Waiver Program. Persons unsure about visa requirements (including those defined in ‘Restricted Entry’ above) should write to the US Consulate General or the Visa Department of the US Embassy (see Contact Addresses section). Types of visa and cost: Non-immigrant and Immigrant. Non-immigrant visas are subdivided into a number of different visa categories, including Business, Student (participating in academic or exchange programmes), Employment and Holiday. For details on other types of non-immigrant visas and application requirements, contact the Consulate (or Consular section at Embassy) or US Embassy (see Contact Addresses section). Recorded visa information is also available (tel: (09055) 444 546; calls cost £1.30 per minute). Each visa costs £67, regardless of whether the visa is denied or issued and regardless of the duration of the visa or entries required. The Embassy will provide a paying-in slip, which is attached to the application form DS-156. The fee must be paid in cash at a bank prior to submitting a visa application to the US Embassy, and the bank will endorse the DS-156 as receipt of payment. Some nationals may also have to pay a reciprocal visa issuance fee – details are available from the State Department (website: www.travel.state.gov). Validity: Visas may be used for travel to the USA until the date it expires, or if marked ‘valid indefinitely’ for up to ten years. Some visas are valid for multiple entries. The length of stay in the USA is determined by US immigration officials at the time of entry but is generally six months: there is however no set time. For extensions and further information, apply to the US Immigration & Naturalisation Service when in the USA. Note: (a) As of January 2003, most non-immigrant visa applicants are required to schedule an appointment for a visa interview with a consular officer. (b) All visa applicants, regardless of age, are required to complete a DS-157 form. (c) The Embassy no longer issues visas valid indefinitely. Any new B-1/B-2 visa issued will be valid for a maximum of ten years. (d) A visa does not expire with the expiry of the holder’s passport. An unexpired, endorsed visa in an expired passport may be presented for entry into the USA as long as the visa itself has not been cancelled, is undamaged, is less than ten years old and is presented with a valid non-expired passport, provided that both passports are for the same nationality. Application to: Visa branches at Consulates General. Those residing in England, Scotland or Wales should apply to the Embassy in London. Nationals of Northern Ireland should apply to the Consulate General in Belfast (see Contact Addresses section). The Consulate in Scotland does not process visas. Visas can also be applied for by mail or through an authorised travel agent who has an agreement with the Embassy to lodge passports. Only applicants requested by the Embassy to appear in person for an interview will be required to schedule a personal appointment. Application requirements: (a) Completed visa application form DS-156. All male applicants aged between 16 and 45 must also complete an additional form DS-157. (b) Passport valid six months after visit and with at least one blank page. (c) One passport-size colour photo. (d) Embassy copy of the fee receipt endorsed by the bank. (e) Documentation of intent to return to country of residence. (f) Supporting documents (such as purpose of visit), where relevant. (g) Self-addressed, registered envelope, if applying by post. Applications are by mail or an authorised travel agent or courier, which has an agreement with the US Embassy to lodge passports. If applying through a travel agent, applicants should contact the company for details on paying the visa fee. Note: All nationals of China, Iran, Iraq, Libya, Korea (Dem Rep), Russia, Somalia, Syria, Sudan and Vietnam are required to provide an administrative processing questionnaire form – DS-157. Nationals of China, Cuba, Russia and Vietnam are also required to complete two DS-156 application forms and provide two colour passport-size photos. Nationals of North Cyprus are required to provide four colour, passport-size photos. In some cases, an interview may be requested. Those defined in ‘Restricted Entry’ above are required to provide extra documentation. Please note that requirements are subject to change at short notice and any applicant should check with the US Embassy (website: www.usembassy.org.uk). Working days required: Routine applications will normally take at least ten days from the date of receipt. However, due to the terrorist attacks of 11 September 2001, applications may take up to several weeks. Passports will be posted back in the self-addressed, registered envelope or handed back to the travel agent. It is important to allow sufficient time for processing the visa, and final travel plans should not be made until a visa has been issued. Applications lodged during the peak travel season may take longer. Information on the current processing time is available (tel: 020 7894 0525). Temporary residence: The law in the USA is complex for those wishing to take up residence. More information may be obtained from the Embassy (see Contact Addresses section). Money Currency: US Dollar (US$) = 100 cents. Notes are in denominations of US$100, 50, 20, 10, 5, 2 and 1. Coins are in denominations of US$1, and 50, 25, 10, 5 and 1 cents. Currency exchange: Hotels do not, as a rule, exchange currency and only a few major banks will exchange foreign currency, so it is advisable to arrive with US Dollars. Credit & debit cards: Most major credit cards are accepted throughout the USA, including Diners Club, American Express, MasterCard and Visa. Check with your credit or debit card company for details of merchant acceptability and other services which may be available. Visitors are advised to carry at least one major credit card, as it is common to request prepayment for hotel rooms and car hire when payment is not by credit card. Travellers cheques: Widely accepted in hotels, stores and restaurants, provided they are US Dollar cheques; Sterling travellers cheques are not acceptable. It should be noted that many banks do not have the facility to encash travellers cheques (the US banking system differs greatly from that of the UK) and those that do are likely to charge a high commission. One or (in some cases) two items of identification (passport, credit card, driving licence) may also be required. To avoid additional exchange rate charges, travellers are advised to take travellers cheques in US Dollars. Currency restrictions: There are no limits on the import or export of either foreign or local currency. However, amounts in excess of US$10,000 or the equivalent (including ‘bearer bonds’) must be registered with US Customs on Form 4790. All gold coins and any quantity of gold must be declared before export. Exchange rate indicators The following figures are included as a guide to the movements of the US Dollar against Sterling: Date May ’02 Aug ’02 Nov ’02 Feb ’03 £1.00= 1.46 1.52 1.58 1.59 Banking hours: Variable, but generally Mon-Fri 0900-1500. Duty Free The following goods may be imported by visitors over 21 years of age into the USA without incurring customs duty: 200 cigarettes or 50 cigars or 2kg of smoking tobacco or proportionate amounts of each; 1l of alcoholic beverage; gifts or articles up to a value of US$100 (including 100 cigars in addition to the tobacco allowance above). Note: (a) Items should not be gift-wrapped as they must be available for customs inspection. (b) The alcoholic beverage allowance (see above) is the national maximum; certain States allow less and if arriving in those States, the excess will be taxed or withheld. (c) The gift allowance may only be claimed once in every six months and is only available to non-residents who intend to stay in the USA for more than 72 hours. (d) For information about the importation of pets, refer to the brochure Pets, Wildlife – US Customs, available at US Embassies and Consulates. (e) Further information on US customs regulations is available on the Internet (website: www.customs.ustreas.gov). Prohibited and restricted items: The following are either banned or may only be imported under licence: (a) Narcotics and dangerous drugs, unless for medical purposes (doctor’s certificate required). (b) Absinthe, biological materials, some seeds, fruits and plants (including endangered species of plants and vegetables and their products). (c) Firearms and ammunition (with some exceptions – consult Customs’ website). (d) Hazardous articles (fireworks, toxic materials). (e) Meat and poultry products – fresh, dried or canned. (f) Any fish (unless certified as disease free). (g) Cuban cigars, brought from any country. (h) Wildlife and endangered species including crustaceans, mollusks, eggs and any crafted articles of fur, skin and leather. (i) Dairy products and eggs. (j) Imports from Iran and leather souvenirs from Haiti (eg drums). (k) Obscene articles and publications. Public Holidays Jan 1 2003 New Year’s Day. Jan 20 Martin Luther King Day. Feb 17 Presidents’ Day. May 31 Memorial Day. Jun 14 Flag Day. Jul 4 Independence Day. Sep 1 Labor Day. Oct 13 Columbus Day. Nov 11 Veterans’ Day. Nov 27 Thanksgiving Day. Dec 25 Christmas Day. Jan 1 2004 New Year’s Day. Jan 19 Martin Luther King Day. Feb 16 Presidents’ Day. May 24 Memorial Day. Jun 14 Flag Day. Jul 4 Independence Day. Sep 6 Labor Day. Oct 11 Columbus Day. Nov 11 Veterans’ Day. Nov 25 Thanksgiving Day. Dec 25 Christmas Day. Health   Special Precautions Certificate Required Yellow Fever No No Cholera No No Typhoid and Polio No N/A Malaria No N/A Other risks: Rabies may be present in wildlife. For those at high risk, vaccination before arrival should be considered. If you are bitten, seek medical advice without delay. For more information, consult the Health appendix. Health care: Medical insurance providing cover up to at least US$500,000 is strongly advised. Only emergency cases are treated without prior payment and treatment will often be refused without evidence of insurance or a deposit. Medical facilities are generally of an extremely high standard. Those visiting the USA for long periods with school-age children should be aware that school entry requirements include proof of immunisation against diphtheria, measles, poliomyelitis and rubella throughout the USA, and schools in many States also require immunisation against tetanus, pertussis and mumps. HIV-positive visitors must apply at the Embassy for a waiver of inadmissibility before entry. Travel - International Note: The information to be found immediately below is of a more general nature. For more details, consult the individual State sections. AIR: The principal US airlines operating international services are: American Airlines (AA), Continental Airlines, Delta Air, Northwest Airlines and United Airlines. Many other airlines operate services from all over the world to the USA. International airports: The ten busiest airports in the USA are Atlanta (ATL), Chicago (ORD), Los Angeles (LAX), Dallas/Forth Worth (DFW), San Francisco (SFO), Denver (DEN), Las Vegas (LAS), Minneapolis-St Paul (MSP), Phoenix (PHX) and Detroit (DTW). For further details, consult the individual State sections. Approximate flight times: From London to Anchorage is 8 hours 55 minutes, to Detroit is 8 hours 30 minutes, to Los Angeles is 11 hours 20 minutes, to Miami is 9 hours 45 minutes, to New York is 7 hours 50 minutes (3 hours 50 minutes by Concorde), to San Francisco is 11 hours 10 minutes, to Seattle is 9 hours 50 minutes and to Washington DC is 8 hours 25 minutes (all times are by non-stop flight). From Singapore to Los Angeles is 18 hours 45 minutes and to New York is 21 hours 25 minutes. From Sydney to Los Angeles is 17 hours 55 minutes and to New York is 21 hours 5 minutes. More international flight times may be found in the individual State sections. Note: Flights to Europe from the east coast of the USA take approximately 30–40 minutes less than westbound flights, and from the west coast of the USA approximately 60 minutes less. Departure tax: None. SEA: Numerous cruise lines sail from ports worldwide to both the east and west coasts. Contact a travel agent for fares and details. RAIL: The US and Mexican rail networks connect at Yuma, El Paso, Del Rio and Laredo, with limited scheduled passenger services. There are several connections with the Canadian network, including New York–Montréal, Chicago–Toronto and Seattle–Vancouver services. For further information, contact Amtrak (tel: (800) 872 7245 (toll free in USA) or (212) 582 6875 (New York); website: www.amtrak.com). In the UK, contact Leisurail (tel: +44 (0870) 750 0222). ROAD: There are many crossing points from Canada to the USA. The major road routes are: New York to Montréal/Ottawa, Detroit to Toronto/Hamilton, Minneapolis to Winnipeg and Seattle to Vancouver/Edmonton/Calgary. Bus: Greyhound offers services to many destinations in Canada and some destinations in Mexico (tel: (800) 229 9424 (toll free in USA); website: www.greyhound.com). Travel - Internal AIR: The USA may be crossed within five hours from east to west and within two hours from north to south. Strong competition between airlines has resulted in a wide difference between fares. Categories of fares include first-class, economy, excursion and discount. Night flights are generally cheaper. Cheap fares: Money-saving schemes for overseas visitors include discounts on internal flights with the Visit USA (VUSA) Airpass, offered by the principal US airlines (Delta offers a similar scheme branded as Discover America). These passes are offered as a minimum of three and a maximum of ten coupons entitling the passenger to that number of flights within the USA at a discounted fare; price is based on the number of flight segments. A number of restrictions usually apply, including: (a) must be booked in conjunction with a round-trip flight to the USA (although this can often be on a different carrier); (b) tickets must be purchased outside North America and are not available to US, Canadian and some Caribbean residents; (c) tickets must often be purchased before a specified time (eg 21 days in advance); (d) the traveller must utilise the first coupon within a specified time period (usually within 60 days of arrival in the USA) and use all the coupons within 180 days of arrival. Agents are advised to contact the offices of individual airlines once a basic itinerary has been organised, as terms may vary. Note: Baggage allowance is often determined by number and size in addition to weight. SEA/LAKE/RIVER: There are extensive water communications both along the coastline and along the great rivers and lakes. The Ohio River carries more water traffic than any other inland waterway in the world. Tour ships and passenger and freight lines crisscross all the Great Lakes from ports in Duluth, Sault Sainte Marie, Milwaukee, Chicago, Detroit, Buffalo, Rochester, Cleveland and Toronto. RAIL: Nearly all the long-distance trains are operated by Amtrak, which serves more than 500 communities in 45 States throughout a 35,000km (22,000-mile) route system. Services along the northeast corridor exist between Boston, New York and Washington. Acela Express high-speed rail service along the northeast corridor is capable of travelling up to 240kph (150mph), reducing the current three-hour trip between Washington and New York by 30 minutes and the New York to Boston journey from 4 hours 30 minutes to 3 hours. Other routes run south to Florida and New Orleans, and from Boston, New York or Washington to Chicago. From Chicago, daily services radiate to Seattle, Portland, Oakland, San Francisco, Los Angeles, New Orleans and San Antonio. A connection also exists between San Antonio and Los Angeles. Coast-to-coast train service is provided between Orlando and Los Angeles. Prices and timetables are subject to change without notice. A variety of State and municipal bodies operate short-distance and commuter rail lines around various urban centres. A number of independent companies offer short routes, often in scenic locations on-board vintage trains. Amtrak contact details: For up-to-date information, contact Amtrak (tel: (800) 872 7245 (toll free in USA) or (212) 582 6875 (New York); website: www.amtrak.com); in the UK, contact Leisurail (tel: +44 (0870) 750 0222). US travel agents can also obtain information on Amtrak train services, schedules and travel packages through the Western Folder Distribution Company Travel Information Network by entering their ARC number on the Internet (website: www.travelinfonetwork.com). Facilities and services: Nearly all trains have coach seating and air-conditioning, with a variety of sleeping accommodation available for a supplemental charge. All long-distance trains have waiter-staffed, seated dining facilities. Cafe cars on shorter trips provide snacks and beverages that guests can take back to their seats. Tour packages: Amtrak offers a variety of tour packages throughout the USA flexible to any budget. Full details are provided in the Amtrak Travel Planner, which is widely available. A great deal of the USA’s beautiful scenery and historical sites can only be viewed by train. Passenger trains continue to attract a discerning and ever-increasing clientele. Indeed, rail travel in the USA – as in many other countries – has undergone a considerable revival in recent years, and the trend continues. Cheap fares: The USA Rail Pass is specifically designed for international travellers from outside the USA or Canada and offers 15 or 30 days of unlimited travel either on a national or regional basis. The National USA Rail Pass offers travel on the whole Amtrak network in the USA and Canada (excluding overnight sleepers, Auto Train, Metroliner and Acela Express between Boston, New York and Washington). It costs US$440 (US$295 off-peak) per person for 15 days and US$550 (US$385 off-peak) for 30 days. The peak season is from 1 June to mid-September and off-peak fares are in effect for the remainder of the year. Children aged two-15 pay half the adult fare and children under two years of age travel free. Group, family, weekend and tour packages are available. The following Regional USA Rail Passes are also available: the Northeast Rail Pass is valid on trains from Newport News (Virgina) north to Boston, Burlington (Vermont) and Montréal (Canada), west from Philadelphia to Harrisburg (Pennsylvania), west from New York to Niagara Falls, and all stations in between; the East Rail Pass covers the region east of Chicago and New Orleans up to Montréal; the West Rail Pass covers the region west of Chicago to Seattle, Portland, San Francisco and Los Angeles; the Far West Rail Pass covers the region from Denver to Seattle, San Francisco and Los Angeles; and the Coastal Rail Pass covers the west coast and from Seattle to San Diego. Prices for these passes vary between approximately US$185 for 15-day passes and US$430 for 30-day passes (with a 20-30 per cent reduction during off-peak season). The Northeast Rail Pass also provides the option of purchasing a five-day pass for US$149 during the peak and off-peak seasons. Passports must be presented at the time of purchase and passes must be used within 90 days of purchase. The passes cover coach-class travel tickets and seat reservations on Amtrak passenger services. However, rail passes act as a form of payment for seats only – to guarantee a seat on a specific train, a reservation must be made. Travellers should contact Amtrak (tel: (800) 872 7245) to find out whether reservations are required on specific journeys they wish to make. For journeys where reservations are required, train times should be reconfirmed 24 hours prior to departure. Travellers planning to travel during peak times should make reservations well in advance. First-class accommodation and additional amenities are available for an added fee. Further information on prices and timetables is available from Amtrak (for contact details, see above). A list of international sales representatives can be found online (website: www.amtrak.com/international/salesreps.html). ROAD: Driving is a marvellous way to see the USA, although the distances between cities can be enormous. A realistic evaluation of travel times should be made to avoid over-strenuous itineraries. Driving conditions are excellent and the road system reaches every town. Petrol (gas) is cheaper than in Europe. AAA (American Automobile Association; website: www.aaa.com) offers touring services, maps and travel advice to affiliate auto club members. Some AAA clubs offer referrals to companies for vehicle insurance policies, which are compulsory in all States, even for hire cars. AAA basic benefits are offered as a courtesy to affiliate auto club members who present their valid membership card (eg AA membership for the UK) while visiting in the USA. For further information, Americans should contact their local AAA club office (listed in the local telephone directory), while visitors to the USA should contact their own national association for information on the AAA before departure. Bus: Greyhound is the main national coach carrier and covers the whole of the USA. This service is supplemented by over 11,000 other tour lines, covering the country with reasonably priced and regular services. Some Greyhound services are available to Mexico and Canada. Air-conditioning, toilets and reclining seats are available on intercity routes. Facilities for left luggage and food are available, usually 24 hours a day. Once disembarked at a bus terminal, passengers are not permitted to wait there overnight for an onward bus (ie no sleeping in the terminal). Unlimited stopovers are allowed on ordinary tickets. Greyhound also offers excursion fares for point-to-point travel. For information on fares and schedules, contact Greyhound (tel: (800) 229 9424 (toll free in USA) or (402) 330 8552 (international callers); website: www.greyhound.com). Cheap fares: Greyhound offers a range of Discovery Pass programmes, valid for four to 60 days in the USA and/or Canada, which can be purchased by US, Canadian and overseas travellers. The International Ameripass is ten to 15 per cent cheaper than the domestic version, but must be purchased outside the USA and Canada. The Ameripass, which gives seven, ten, 15, 21, 30, 45 or 60 days unlimited travel throughout the USA, costs US$185-509 for domestic purchasers (US$155-449 for international). A four-day pass is also available for US$135, but only to overseas visitors. Discounted fares are available for children two-12 years, passengers over 62 years old and students enrolled in undergraduate or postgraduate study. A variety of regional passes are also available. For further details, contact Greyhound on one of their Discovery Pass numbers (tel: (888) 454 7277 (if purchased in the USA) or (888) 661 8747 (if purchased in Canada) or (402) 330 8552 or 330 8584 (if purchased overseas). Car hire: Major international companies have offices at all gateway airports and in most cities. There are excellent discounts available for foreign visitors. Credit-card deposits and inclusive rates are generally required. As a guide to car sizes, an ‘Economy’ or ‘Compact’ refers to a car the size of a standard European car, while a ‘Standard’ refers to a car nearly the size of a limousine. Minimum ages for hirers vary according to the rental company, pick-up point and method of payment. Agents are advised to contact the individual companies for information on drivers under 25 years of age. Drive away: Auto Driveaway provides a service enabling the traveller to drive cars to and from a given point, only paying the price of petrol. A deposit is often required and time and mileage limits are set for delivery, which leaves very little time for sightseeing (there are heavy financial penalties for those who exceed the limits). Details are published under Automobile & Truck Transporting in the US Yellow Pages. Some companies allow the driver to finish the journey in Canada. For further information, contact Auto Driveaway (website: www.autodriveaway.com). Campers/motorhomes: The hire of self-drive campers or motorhomes, which are called ‘recreational vehicles’ in the USA, is easy and provides a good means of getting around. Documentation and insurance: An International Driving Permit is recommended, although it is not legally required (it is often very useful as an additional proof of identity). A full national driving licence is accepted for up to one year. All travellers intending to rent or drive cars or motorhomes in the USA are strongly advised to ensure that the insurance policy covers their total requirements, covering all drivers and passengers against injury or accidental death. A yellow ‘non-resident, interstate liability insurance card’ which acts as evidence of financial responsibility is available through motor insurance agents. Traffic regulations: Traffic drives on the right. The speed limit is usually 55mph (89kph) on motorways, but varies from State to State. Speed limits are clearly indicated along highways and are strictly enforced, with heavy fines imposed. Note that it is illegal to pass a school bus that has stopped to unload its passengers (using indicators and warning lights) and all vehicles must stop until the bus has moved back into the traffic stream. It is illegal for drivers not to have their licences immediately to hand. If stopped, do not attempt to pay a driving fine on the spot (unless it is demanded) as it may be interpreted as an attempt to bribe. Note: There are extremely tough laws against drinking and driving throughout the USA. These laws are strictly enforced. URBAN: Some US cities now have good public transport services following a ‘transit renaissance’ after the energy crises of the 1970s. There are numerous underground train systems in operation in major cities including New York (subway), Washington, DC (metro), Boston (‘T’), Chicago (train) and San Francisco (BART – Bay Area Rapid Transit); others are being planned or built. There are also several tramway and trolleybus systems, including the much-loved antique trams found in San Francisco. Note: Many of the underground train systems are dangerous during off-peak hours (the New York subway, in particular, has acquired an almost gothic reputation for violence, although this has been much exaggerated), but they offer cheap, quick and efficient travel during the working day, particularly in New York, Boston and Chicago. Travel by any other means during the day is likely to be slow and arduous. Accommodation HOTELS: There are many good traditional hotels. However, the majority are modern and part of national and international chains, often with standard prices. In general, the quality of accommodation is high, with facilities such as televisions and telephones in each room. For further information, contact the American Hotel & Lodging Association, 1201 New York Avenue NW, Suite 600, Washington, DC 20005 (tel: (202) 289 3100; fax: (202) 289 3199; e-mail: info@ahla.com; website: www.ahla.com). Grading: Basic categories fall into Super, Deluxe, Standard, Moderate and Inexpensive. Prices vary according to standards. Pre-paid voucher schemes: Several companies offer a pre-paid voucher scheme for use at various hotel and motel chains throughout the USA. BED & BREAKFAST: This long established tradition in the UK is now spreading across the USA. B&B signs are not generally displayed by individual homes, but most homes offering this service are listed in directories, which may be purchased by interested travellers. ‘B&B inns’ have up to 20 or so rooms, and are distinguished from ‘country inns’ in that the latter offer meals in addition to breakfast; further information is abvailable from the Professional Association of Innkeepers International (website: www.paii.org). There are also numerous national and regional B&B associations. RANCH HOLIDAYS: There are ranches all over the southern and western States offering riding, participation in cattle drives, and activity holidays in mountain and lakeland settings. CAMPING/CARAVANNING: This is extremely popular, especially in the Rocky Mountains and New England. The camping season in the north lasts from mid-May to mid-September. Camping along the side of highways and in undesignated areas is prohibited. For information on campsites, contact KOA (Kampgrounds of America) (tel: (406) 248 7444; fax: (406) 248 7414; website: www.koa.com). The 24,000-plus campsites fall into two general categories: Public sites: Usually linked with National or State Parks and Forests, offering modest but comfortable facilities. Most of them will have toilet blocks, electricity hook-ups and picnic areas. Campsites are usually operated on a first-come, first-served basis and will often restrict the length of stay. Advance reservations are possible at some national parks. Fees range from free to around US$20 per night. Privately run sites: These range from basic to resort luxury. Most have laundry and drying facilities, entertainment and information services. Reservations can be made through a central reservation office in the USA. Fees range from around US$25-35. Camping in the backcountry (a general term for areas inaccessible by road) requires a permit, available free of charge. Visitors are advised not to drink water from rivers and streams without boiling it for at least five minutes. It is also advisable to check fire regulations and inform the park ranger of the itinerary before setting out to a backcountry area. YMCA/YOUTH HOSTELS: There are 74 YMCA centres in 68 cities throughout the USA. Membership is not necessary, but reservations should be made two days prior to arrival via the Head Offices. The YMCA offers centrally located accommodation at attractive rates coast to coast throughout the USA. Most centres offer single and double accommodation for both men and women and many also have sports facilities. For further information, contact YMCA of the USA, 101 North Wacker Drive, Chicago, IL 60606 (website: www.ymca.net). Youth hostels offer their members simple, inexpensive overnight accommodation usually located in scenic, historical or cultural places. Youth Hostel Association membership is open to everyone with no age limit and there are individual, family and organisation memberships. British visitors should take out membership in the UK before travelling. For further information, contact the American Youth Hostels Inc, 733 15th Street NW, Suite 840, Washington, DC 20005 (tel: (202) 783 6161; fax: (202) 783 6171; website: www.hiayh.org). SELF-CATERING: Self-catering facilities, known in the USA as ‘apartments’, ‘condominiums’ (or ‘condos’), ‘efficiencies’ or ‘villas’, are also available. HOME EXCHANGE: There are several agents who offer home exchange programmes between the USA and the UK. Introduction For details on resorts, excursions, places of interest and tourist attractions in the USA, see the individual State sections. Sport & Activities Outdoor pursuits: The vast expanses of wilderness, mountains, forest, canyons and coastlines of the USA lend themselves to a wide range of outdoor pursuits. From trekking in the Sierra Nevada Mountains, whitewater rafting through the Grand Canyon on the Colorado River, canoeing down the Mississippi River, fishing on the Great Lakes, sailing in Florida, diving in Hawaii to skiing in the Rocky Mountains, every activity can easily be arranged. The USA’s national parks are administered by the National Park Service (NPS). Hiking trails are generally well kept and well marked. The National Park System includes National Monuments, which are smaller than parks and focus on maybe just one archaeological site or geological phenomenon (such as Devil’s Tower in Wyoming), National Forests and 170 or so lesser known Parks, which are located away from the cities and highways. State Parks and State Monuments are administered by individual States. Most of the USA’s parks and outdoor recreational areas have visitor centres where advice on trails, activities and other practical information (such as weather reports or fishing regulations) can be obtained. Most parks and monuments charge admission fees ranging from US$4-20. A number of passes are available from the NPS: the National Parks Pass (US$50) gives one driver and all accompanying passengers a year’s unlimited access to nearly all national parks and monuments (users should note that this pass does not reduce fees for facilities such as camping, swimming, parking and boat launching). Only the larger parks have hotel-style accommodation, while almost all parks and monuments have facilities for camping. For further details on camping, see the Accommodation section. Fishing permits are compulsory and vary from State to State. Rock climbing and mountaineering are particularly popular in the Sierra Nevada and in the Rocky Mountains. For further information about reservations, permits, regulations and services, visitors should contact the parks in advance or the National Park Service, Office of Public Inquiries, 1849 C Street NW, Room 1013, Washington, DC 20240 (tel: (202) 208 6843; website: www.nps.gov). Spectator sports: Often called ‘the nation’s pastime’, baseball is an important part of the US psyche. The ‘boys of summer’ play Major League Baseball (website: www.mlb.com) from April to September, culminating in the post-season World Series championships, first contested in 1903. Tickets for regular season games can be relatively cheap, starting at around US$9 per seat. American football tickets during the September to January National Football League (NFL) (website: www.nfl.com) season are not only very expensive, but also extremely hard to come by. Many people opt for the popular college games instead. College basketball is also surprisingly high profile, although not as big a draw as professional games in the National Basketball Association (NBA) (website: www.nba.com), whose season runs from November to April. The popularity of ice hockey has expanded from Canadian and far northern cities to the rest of the USA. Professional teams compete in the National Hockey League (website: www.nhl.com) from October to March. The most popular tennis competition in the USA is the US Open at Flushing Meadow in New York, held from late August to early September. Individual tickets go on sale during June. For ticket information, write to Customer Service, US Open Ticket Dept, Flushing Meadow, Corona Park, Flushing, NY 11368 (website: www.usopen.org). For general information on tennis, contact the United States Tennis Association (website: www.usta.com). The heart of horseracing in the USA is the ‘bluegrass country’, focused around the State of Kentucky. The most important races of the year, the Bluegrass Stakes and the Kentucky Derby (in May), are run at the Churchill Downs racecourse in Louisville, Kentucky. There are also major tracks in New England. Rodeos, a legacy of the historical development that resulted from the spread of cattle ranching, are frequently held in Colorado, Oklahoma, Texas and throughout the western States. The USA also hosts the world’s largest motor racing event, the Indianapolis 500, held annually in May. Wintersports: The USA offers some of the world’s best skiing runs, particularly in the Rocky Mountains and the Sierra Nevada. The Rocky Mountain States (and Colorado in particular) are particularly good for downhill skiing, the best-known resorts including Aspen, Vail, Jackson Hole and Big Sky. In the Sierra Nevada, Lake Tahoe is the major ski destination. Cross-country skiing is also well catered for, with backcountry ski lodges scattered around mountainous areas along the coast and in the Rockies. New England, California, Minnesota, Wisconsin and Wyoming are also good destinations for cross-country skiing. Information on cross-country skiing can be obtained from the Cross Country Ski Areas Association (website: www.xcski.org). In the past few years, snowboarding has become increasingly popular, and plenty of ski resorts now offer half pipes and board rental. Golf: The American passion for golf is exemplified by the extremely high number of courses found throughout the country as well as the massive crowds flocking to the United States Golf Association’s national championships games. In 2002, the 102nd US Open was held on a public course for the first time, at Bethage State Park (Black Course) on Long Island. For further details on courses, fees and competitions, contact the United States Golf Association (USGA), PO Box 708, Far Hills, NJ 07931 (tel: (908) 234 2300; fax: (908) 234 9687; website: www.usga.org). Watersports: One of the activities that epitomises US sport is surfing and Hawaii, with its legendary winter swells at Oahu (surfing’s spiritual home), Waimea, Sunset Beach and the Banzai Pipeline, remains one of the USA’s (and the world’s) most famous surfing destinations. California also has some good breaks in Malibu, Rincon, Trestles and Mavericks. Diving and snorkelling are particularly good in Hawaii, California, Florida and along the East Coast. The Professional Association of Diving Instructors (PADI), the world’s largest recreational diving membership organisation, has its headquarters in California at 30151 Tomas Street, Rancho Santa Margarita, CA 92688 (tel: (949) 858 7234; fax: (949) 858 7264; e-mail: webmaster@padi.com; website: www.padi.com). Other popular watersports include sailing, windsurfing, sea kayaking and jetskiing. Social Profile Food & Drink: In large cities, restaurants are mostly modern and very clean, offering a vast range of cuisines, prices and facilities. US breakfasts are especially notable for such specialities as pancakes or waffles with maple syrup, home fries and grits (a Southern dish). Foreigners are often perplexed by the common question of how they would like their eggs fried, ie ‘over easy' (flipped over briefly) or ‘sunny side up' (fried on one side only). Fast food chains serving hot dogs, hamburgers and pizzas are everywhere. Regional specialities range from Spanish flavours in the southwest to Creole or French in the Deep South. Restaurants come in all shapes and sizes, ranging from fast-food, self-service and counter service to drive-in and table service. The ‘diner’ is an integral part of the US way of life; consisting of a driveway, neon lights and simple food served from the counter; it is generally located in or just outside smaller towns. Discounts on eating out include Early Bird Dinners, where discounts are offered for meals served prior to 1800; Children’s Platters, selections from a low-cost children’s menu; and Restaurant Specials, when a different specific meal is offered each day at a discount price or there is an all-you-can-eat menu. There are also many types of bars, ranging from the smart cocktail lounge, cafe-style, high ‘saloon’ style bars and imitations of English pubs to the ‘regular’ bar. In cities many have ‘happy hours’ with cheaper drinks and free snacks on the counter. Generally speaking, waiter/waitress service costs more. Drinking laws are set by States, counties, municipalities and towns, although traditionally closing time in bars is between 0000 and 0300. The legal age for drinking also varies from 18 to 21 from State to State and the laws on the availability of alcohol run from Nevada’s policy of anytime, anywhere and to anyone, to localities where drinking is strictly prohibited. Where the laws are severe, there are often private clubs or a town only a few kilometres away from the ‘dry town’ where alcohol sales are legal. It is important to be aware of these laws when visiting an area and it is worth remembering that where alcohol is available, visitors may be asked to produce some form of identity that will prove their age. It should also be noted that it is illegal to have an open container of alcohol in a vehicle or on the street. Beer is the most popular and widespread drink and is served ice cold. Californian wines are very popular. See also Food & Drink in the individual State sections for further detail. Nightlife: Clubs generally stay open until the early hours in cities, where one can find music and theatre of all descriptions. Unlike in Europe, bars are usually for drinkers and not for social meetings. Theatre tickets for Broadway, New York’s equivalent of London’s West End ‘Theatreland’, can be booked for groups of over 20 through Group Sales Box Office, Tenth Floor, 226 West 47th Street, New York, NY 10036 (tel: (212) 398 8383; e-mail: gsbo@att.net; website: www.bestofbroadway.com). Tickets must be paid for in advance and will be kept at the theatre box office for collection on the night of the performance. Gambling is only allowed in licensed casinos and the legal age for gamblers is 21 years of age or over. Shopping: Variety, late opening hours, competitive prices and an abundance of modern goods typify US shopping. Many small stores, specialist food shops and hypermarkets are open 24 hours a day. Clothes and electronic goods can be bought direct from factories. Retail outlets range from flea markets and bargain stores to large chain department stores. Malls are a popular way of shopping in the USA and consist of a cluster of different kinds of shops in one building, often a few storeys high, connected by an indoor plaza. Note that a sales tax is levied on most or all items in most States and the addition is not included on the price label; sales tax can be anywhere from three to 15 per cent, depending on the State. Shopping hours: Mon-Sat 0900/0930-1730/1800. There may be late-night shopping one or two evenings a week. Some States permit Sunday trading. Special Events: The holidays which are closest to the people’s hearts are Thanksgiving and Christmas. See also Special Events in the individual State sections. Mardi Gras: Every year, New Orleans celebrates the weeks leading up to Mardi Gras (Mar 4 in 2003), attracting visitors from all over the USA and abroad. There are parades, dancing in the streets and revellers in masks and costumes all in a spirit of wild abandon. The 4th of July: In honour of the USA’s victory against the British in the Revolutionary War, this holiday is celebrated throughout the country with spectacular fireworks displays. US fireworks are among the best in the world and some of the most dazzling shows take place over lakes, rivers or on the coast, where the sky is lit up and the light is reflected from the water. Hallowe’en: Another holiday celebrated in the USA is Hallowe’en (Oct 31). Children dress up in (often ghoulish) costumes as witches, devils and ghosts and tour the neighbourhood, usually in groups, knocking on the doors of nearby houses and saying ‘trick or treat’. The owner of the house is then obliged to give the children some sort of ‘treat’, usually food or sweets. Failure to comply can result in the ‘trick’. The night before Hallowe’en is known as Mischief Night, when children roam their neighbourhoods making a nuisance of themselves with pranks such as ringing doorbells and running away or spreading toilet paper along fences and telephone poles. Both of these nights are somewhat unpopular with adults, but children have a great time and the tradition is probably too ingrained in US tradition to be discontinued. Thanksgiving: This takes place on the fourth Thursday of November (Nov 27 in 2003). It is a festival celebrated with close family and friends. Blessings are shared and prayers of thanks are said over a meal of roast turkey, bread stuffing, roast potatoes and yams. This holiday originated in the first year after the Pilgrim Fathers arrived in the New World as a feast to thank the Native Americans for their aid and advice in helping the immigrants come to grips with a new land. Christmas: The Americans celebrate Christmas (Dec 25) in a big way, both religiously and as consumers. Northern regions have the added bonus of wintery weather and snowfall, and a ‘White Christmas’ (a fairly common event in the New England area and other northern States) always adds to the atmosphere. Social Conventions: The wide variety of national origins and the USA’s relatively short history has resulted in numerous cultural and traditional customs living alongside each other. In large cities, people of the same ethnic background often live within defined communities. Shaking hands is the usual form of greeting. A relaxed and informal atmosphere is usually the norm. As long as the fundamental rules of courtesy are observed there need be no fear of offending anyone of any background. Americans are renowned for their openness and friendliness to visitors. Gifts are appreciated if one is invited to a private home. As a rule dress is casual. Smart restaurants, hotels and clubs insist on suits and ties or long dresses. Smoking is often restricted in public buildings and on city transport. There will usually be a notice where no smoking is requested and many restaurants have smoking and non-smoking sections. Tipping: Widely practised, and service charges are not usually included in the bill. Waiters generally expect 15 per cent, as do taxi drivers and hairdressers. It should be noted that a cover charge is for admission to an establishment, not a tip for service. Porters generally expect US$1 per bag. Business Profile Economy: The US economy is the world’s largest, most powerful and most diverse. The roots of this lie in the physical expansion and development of the country during the 19th century. As a result, the USA benefited from a unique combination of mass immigration, technological and marketing innovations, exploitation of natural resources, the expansion of international trade, historical fortune (hugely destructive wars which caused immense damage to other world powers but left the USA virtually untouched) and the fostering of a political and economic system well designed to exploit them. The enormous influence of US-based multinational companies in the world economy has afforded not only unique global influence to the US government but has also allowed its currency to acquire unique international status. Large areas of the USA, particularly in the Mid-West, are under cultivation and produce a wide range of commodities: the most important of these are cotton, cereals and tobacco, all of which are exported on a large scale. The principal mining operations produce oil and gas, coal, copper, iron, uranium and silver. The US manufacturing industry is a world leader in many fields including steel, vehicles, aerospace, telecommunications, chemicals, electronics and consumer goods. Since the late 1970s, however, the biggest employer has been the service sector, particularly finance (including banking, insurance and equities), leisure and tourism. Services now account for three quarters of output and employment. To this have been added the new computer-based industries associated with the Internet which began revolutionising lifestyles and commerce during the late 1990s – a process which seems set to continue into this millennium with the USA at the forefront of new developments. The US economy has performed steadily, if unspectacularly, in recent times: inflation and unemployment are now 1.5 per cent and five per cent respectively. Annual growth averaged around four to five per cent during the late 1990s, but has since slipped to its present rate of 2.2 per cent as the economy slows down. The events of September 2001 added to the pessimistic outlook for the economy as several industries (notably civil aviation and tourism) suffered a sudden fall in demand. The important IT and telecommunications industries have also been depressed, as have traditional manufacturing industries such as steel. The USA’s most important trade relationship is with Canada (which accounts for 20 per cent of all US trade). The two countries concluded a free trade agreement in 1989: this accord formed the basis for the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), to which Mexico became a signatory in 1992 (NAFTA is of similar proportions to the EU in terms of population and economic output.) Other major trading partners are Japan, the UK and Germany, followed by other members of the EU. Business: Businesspeople are generally expected to dress smartly, although a man may wear a short-sleeved shirt under his suit in hot weather. Normal business courtesies should be observed, although Americans tend to be less formal than Europeans. Appointments and punctuality are normal procedure and business cards are widely used. Dates in America are written month-day-year: 4 July 2003 would thus be abbreviated as 7/4/03. Write out the month in full to avoid confusion. Office hours: Mon-Fri 0900-1730. Commercial Information: The following organisations can offer advice: New York City Partnership & Chamber of Commerce, 1 Battery Park Plaza, Fifth Floor, New York, NY 10004 (tel: (212) 493 7500; fax: (212) 344 3344; e-mail: info@nycp.org; website: www.nycp.org); or US Chamber of Commerce, 1615 H Street, NW, Washington, DC 20062 (tel: (202) 659 6000; website: www.uschamber.org); or the Trade Information Center, US Department of Commerce, (tel: (202) 872 8723; fax: (202) 482 4473; website: www.tradeinfo.doc.gov); or National Foreign Trade Council Inc, 1625 K Street, NW Suite 200, Washington, DC 20006 (tel: (202) 887 0278; fax: (202) 452 8160; e-mail: nftcinformation@nftc.org; website: www.nftc.org); or British American Business Inc, 75 Brook Street, London W1K 4AD, UK (tel: (020) 7467 7400; fax: (020) 7493 2394; website: www.babinc.org). Conferences/Conventions: If for no other reason than its role in the world economy, the USA is an important conference destination; there are State, city and regional travel and convention organisations in every part of the country, each actively promoting its own assets. With so much information available, the real problem for the organiser is to find some way of getting through it all. There are several magazines aimed at helping the conference organiser; they include Meeting & Conventions Magazine (website: www.meetings-conventions.com), Successful Meetings Magazine (website: www.successmtgs.com) and Corporate Meetings and Incentive Magazine (website: www.meetingsnet.com). Of statistical interest is Chicago’s status as host to more trade shows than any other city in the world. Organisers interested in US venues should contact the US Travel Industry Association or the travel organisations listed in the individual State sections. In addition to the State organisations, addresses of travel and convention organisations for cities and counties are also included. Climate See the individual State sections. History and Government History: Before the arrival of Christopher Columbus in North America in 1492, the continent was inhabited by peoples thought to have been descended from nomadic Mongolian tribes who had travelled across the Barents Sea. The first wave of European settlers, mainly English, French and Dutch, crossed the Atlantic in the 17th century and colonised the Eastern Seaboard. The restrictions on political rights and the punitive taxation which the British government imposed on the American colonists led to the American War of Independence (1775–1783), with the Declaration of Independence being signed in 1776. The outcome was a humiliating defeat for the English King, George III. The American Constitution born of this victory has been imitated by many other countries. A period of settlement, purchases from the French and Spanish, and annexation of Indian and Mexican lands followed. By 1853, the boundaries of the United States were, with the exception of Alaska and Hawaii, as they are today. Economic activity in the southern States centred on plantation agriculture dependent on slavery. Attempts by liberally inclined Republicans, led by Abraham Lincoln, to end slavery were fiercely opposed. The election of Lincoln to the presidency in 1861 precipitated a political crisis in which seven southern States (joined later by three others) seceded from the Union, resulting in the American Civil War. The more powerful and better equipped Union forces prevailed after four years of fighting. After the war, the country entered a period of consolidation, building up an industrial economy and settling the vast interior region of America known as the Midwest. The mid- and late-19th century also saw the formulation of an American foreign policy with two principal elements: formal diplomatic and trading links were established with the old colonial powers; while on the American continent, the USA sought to establish itself as the regional power – a policy espoused by the Monroe Doctrine (1822) which laid the basis for intervention in support of the USA’s ‘national interest’. The latter has been a constant feature of US policy ever since. Successful diplomatic and commercial overtures were also made to Japan, paving the way for the growth of US power in the Pacific. In Europe, US intervention in 1917 proved decisive for the Allies, and signalled the emergence of the USA as a global power. Driven by free-market economic policies and innovative developments in technology and production methods – notably the growth of the motor industry – the USA had by this time undeniably become the world’s leading economy. The USA entered World War II following the Japanese attack on the US fleet at Pearl Harbour, although its earlier neutrality had been decidedly favourable to the Allied Powers, especially Britain. Domestic post-war politics have revolved around the struggle between the Republicans and Democrats, the only two parties of any significance. The Republican Party, often referred to as the GOP or Grand Old Party, picks up most corporate support and substantial backing from wealthy individuals; the Democrats are perceived as the party supported by particular interest groups, thus the ‘labor vote’, ‘black vote’, ‘Jewish vote’ and so on, and as having more liberal views on social and welfare policy. The Democratic Party is, however, by no means left-wing and equally as keen as its GOP counterpart to attract the votes of ‘middle America’ – the mostly white, middle-income, middle-class folk who form the backbone of the US electorate (ie the quarter of the population who actually vote). Both Republican and Democratic candidates have been elected to the presidency with roughly equal frequency over the history of the nation, but Republicans have been more frequent in the White House since 1945 while the Democrats have dominated Congress. World War II also saw the birth of nuclear weapons and the superpower conflict that has, until recently, dominated modern international relations. The essence of post-war US foreign policy has been the struggle against the spread of communist influence, not only for ideological reasons but also for economic motives. Despite the dangers of nuclear escalation, the USA has never eschewed military intervention, either directly, or by proxy. The Korean War of the 1950s (under UN auspices), the ill-fated Vietnam war and the Middle East have all seen US troops engaged while many other countries have experienced the effects of military forces financed and supported by discreet US backing. The Reagan administration, which came to office in 1980, reinvigorated the ideological struggle against communism. However, relations between the USA and the former USSR improved greatly after 1985 owing, almost entirely, to the new Soviet foreign policy adopted by the Gorbachev government. In 1988, Reagan’s Vice-President George Bush (father of the current president) was elected to the White House. Bush presided over the collapse of the Soviet bloc and the demise of communism as a political opponent. So, as far as the USA was concerned, the Cold War was won and foreign policy needed realignment. Thus we have the ‘New World Order’, a loosely defined notion coined by Bush senior before the war against Iraq in early 1991. The enemy, so to speak, was best defined in a prophetic speech by one US official as a ‘swirling pot of poison made up of zealots, crazies, drug traffickers and terrorists’. Under the aegis of the New World Order, Bush senior launched two major military campaigns – against Panama and Iraq. For all his engagements on the international stage, Bush senior’s apparent neglect of the domestic situation was exploited by his opponent at the 1992 presidential election, the Democratic Governor of Arkansas, Bill Clinton who won by a comfortable majority. After a shaky start, the Clinton administration got into its stride by embarking on two major policy initiatives. The first was the conclusion of two key trade agreements: the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA); and the Uruguay round of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) from which emerged the World Trade Organisation. The second was a plan to overhaul the unfair and hugely expensive US healthcare system; this task was entrusted to Clinton’s talented First Lady, Hilary Rodham Clinton (now a US Senator). The trade agreements were successfully concluded; the healthcare package failed. Clinton’s foreign policy record improved after a poor start, beginning with the disastrous US involvement (through the UN) in Somalia which was largely a humiliation; Haiti almost went the same way although the position was later recovered. Thereafter, the Dayton accord that ended the Bosnian civil war was a success, favourably contrasting decisive US diplomatic and military action with the vacillations of the Europeans. The historic hard line of Cuba was somewhat softened, largely to the benefit of all concerned. In the Middle East, the Israeli–Palestinian accord was derailed by mutual suspicions and the excessive influence of hardliners on both sides. Further east, the ‘dual containment’ strategy designed to keep the twin pariahs, Iran and Iraq, in check has had mixed results. At home, the early 1990s were a period of steady growth and rising prosperity and these were the main factors that gave Clinton a substantial opinion poll lead as the 1996 election campaign got under way. Divisions among the Republicans assisted. The challenger, Senate Republican leader Bob Dole, was easily seen off by Clinton in what was one of the least dramatic presidential elections in the history of the USA. Clinton’s second term was dominated by a series of confrontations with Congress, both houses of which were under opposition Republican control, and specifically over his affair with White House intern Monica Lewinsky. Congress appointed a special prosecutor, Kenneth Starr, to investigate dissembling by Clinton about Lewinsky and other dubious episodes in his business and personal lives. Despite accumulating a mass of evidence, Starr was unable to persuade Congress to impeach Clinton, but the episode seriously tainted his presidency. The economy was still booming, but Clinton’s appointed successor, Vice-President Al Gore, was unable to take full advantage during the presidential campaign in 2000. His Republican opponent, George W Bush, governor of Texas and son of former President George Bush, waged a much more effective campaign. The contest was ultimately decided, in circumstances that are still hotly disputed, by an extremely narrow margin in the state of Florida. Amid howls of complaint from the defeated Democrats, George W ‘Dubya’ Bush was returned to the White House. Bush arrived in Washington as something of an unknown quantity, but defused criticism of his own lack of experience and expertise by assembling a Cabinet of seasoned Washington hands such as Dick Cheney (Vice-President) and Colin Powell (Secretary of State); a number of others had served under his father. Most, from Bush junior down, had close links with the oil industry so when the new administration, in one of its first major foreign policy decisions, pullled out of the Kyoto agreement on carbon dioxide emissions, there were strong protests but little surprise. Soon afterwards, the USA announced its intention to abrogate several arms control agreements. In every field, US foreign policy has now taken a more aggressive and nationalistic bent, especially after ‘9/11’. Bush junior can hardly have expected to have taken the USA into war before the end of his first year in office, but the events of 11 September 2001 had a momentous and far-reaching impact upon the USA. The attacks on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon brought terrorism to the USA in a manner it can barely have conceived of. The country demanded action, and Bush immediately despatched a substantial force to tackle and destroy the alleged perpetrators: the al-Qaeda movement headed by Osama bin laden and its hosts, the Taleban regime in Afghanistan. He also assembled a diplomatic coalition of some 40 countries including the Western allies, Russia and the former Soviet republics of Central Asia, India and Pakistan under the rubric of an International War Against Terrorism. Through a dual strategy of aerial bombing and support for the existing opposition to the Taleban, the ‘Northern Alliance’ (see Afghanistan section), the USA was able to bring about the disintegration of the Afghan regime within weeks. By the end of the year, the Taleban regime and the infrastructure (such as it was) of al-Qaeda had been destroyed. Bin Laden, however, vanished without trace along with most of al-Qaeda’s senior personnel. The political future of Afghanistan is also highly uncertain – the new government’s writ barely runs outside Kabul – as is the next phase (if any) of the War Against Terrorism. The Bush administration has since turned its sights upon the Iraqi regime of Saddam Hussein. With support from Britain and others, the Americans have sought to use the United Nations as a vehicle to justify a military campaign to overthrow Saddam. There is widespread scepticism about the true motives: control of oil supplies, Middle eastern hegemony, and finishing off the job begun by Bush senior in 1991 have all been cited. As of the end of February 2003, it seems all but certain that the Americans will shortly begin an assault on Iraq. The strictly military aspect should present little difficulty: the problems are likely to begin with the construction of a new Iraqi government sufficiently coherent to hold the country together. The more hawkish members of the Bush administration are keen to use the momentum gained during the Afghan campaign to carry the fight to other enemies of the USA: The most immediate problem after Iraq is North Korea (a fellow member of Bush junior’s ‘axis of evil’) which has been indulging in some high-stakes diplomatic brinkmanship over its nuclear and missile programmes. US rhetoric – heavily influenced by a hawkish group of advisers to Bush junior largely drawn from the ranks of former Republican administrations – has been accompanied by a huge planned increase in defence spending, which includes a commitment to the so-called National Missile Defence programme (popularly known as ‘Son of Star Wars’). Government: The USA is a Federal Republic with 50 States and the District of Columbia (as in ‘Washington, DC’), which lies between Maryland and Virginia. In addition, the USA has close associations with the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, Guam and the US Virgin Islands and exercises trusteeship on behalf of the UN over several Pacific Island groups. The Constitution (the final arbiters of which are the members of the Supreme Court) ensures that the powers of the executive, legislature, judiciary, presidency and the individual states are balanced by constitutional procedures. The President is elected by an electoral college system, based on universal adult suffrage, every four years. No president may be elected to serve more than two full terms of office. The current President is George W Bush, with Dick Cheney as Vice-President. The legislature is bicameral; the Senate has two members from each state while the larger House of Representatives allocates seats on the basis of population. Collectively these two bodies are known as Congress. Each state enjoys a fairly high degree of self-government. Copyright © 2003 Columbus Publishing Ltd.