Serbia and Montenegro Overview Country Overview Serbia and Montenegro (formerly known as The Federal Republic of Yugoslavia) borders Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria, the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Albania, Bosnia-Herzegovina and Croatia. The southern half of Serbia is mountainous and thickly forested, whilst the north is dominated by flat, fertile farmland. Belgrade, the capital of both Serbia and the whole nation, lies on the Danube. Montenegro is a small mountainous region on the Adriatic coast north of Albania. Serbia is the largest of the former Yugoslav republics. Many of the buildings are post-World War II. Well worth a visit is the Palace of Princess Ljubica (1831) with a good collection of period funiture. Skadarlija is the 19th-century Bohemian quarter with cafes, street dancers, singers and open-air theatres. Montenegro is at the southern end of the coast, an area of spectacular mountain ranges with villages perched like eagles’ nests on high peaks. The port, Kotor, features a bustling, picturesque old city quarter. National dishes include pihtije (jellied pork or duck) and raznjici (skewered meat). There is a wide range of nightlife in all the main cities and resorts, including bars, nightclubs, cinemas and theatres. General Information Note: As of February 2003, the Yugoslav parliament ceased to be and the Union of Serbia and Montenegro was voted into existence. The Union was agreed in 2002 and will remain unchanged for at least three years after which time the individual states can decide whether to stay united or to separate. At the time of writing, all information is correct and up to date, but it may be subject to quick change and new events may change various aspects of any of the following sections. All information should be double-checked with an official source. Area: Serbia and Montenegro comprises Serbia (including the provinces of Kosovo and Vojvodina) with 88,361 sq km (39,449 sq miles) and Montenegro with 13,812 sq km (5331 sq miles). These two were respectively the largest and smallest of the republics which made up the former Yugoslavia. The country officially covers 102,173 sq km (39,448 sq miles), or 40 per cent of the territory of the former federation (255,804 sq km/98,766 sq miles). Population: Together, Serbia and Montenegro have an estimated total population of 10,629,400 (1999). Population Density: 104 per sq km. Capital: Belgrade (Beograd, Serbia). Population: 1,168,454 (1991). Podgorica is the capital of Montenegro. GEOGRAPHY: Roughly rectangular in shape and on a major European communications axis north–west and south–east, the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia borders Hungary to the north, Romania to the northeast, Bulgaria to the southeast, the Kosovo region and Albania to the south, Bosnia-Herzegovina to the west and Croatia to the northwest. The province of Kosovo, now administered by the UN, is in the south, and shares borders with Macedonia (former Yugoslav Republic) and Albania. Serbia is dominated by the flat, fertile farmland of the Danube and Tisza valleys. The scenery varies from rich Alpine valleys, vast fertile plains and rolling green hills to bare, rocky gorges as much as 1140m (3800ft) deep, thick forests and gaunt limestone mountain regions. Belgrade, the capital, lies on the Danube. Montenegro is a small mountainous region on the Adriatic coast north of Albania, bordering on Bosnia-Herzegovina to the west. Its small Adriatic coastline comprises the main ports of Bar and those in the Gulf of Kotor. Government: Union of States since February 2003 (previously Federal Republic since 1992. First gained independence as the ‘Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes’ in 1918 from the Austro-Hungarian Empire; renamed Yugoslavia in 1929). Head of State: President Vojislav Kostunica since 2000. Head of Government: Prime Minister Dragisa Pesic since 2001. The Kosovo region is now administered by the UN. Language: Serbian, which uses the Cyrillic script, Albanian and Hungarian. Religion: Majority Eastern Orthodox Serbs, with a large Muslim ethnic Albanian minority (especially in the province of Kosovo), a Roman Catholic ethnic Serbian minority (mainly located in the province of Vojvodina) and a small Jewish community. Time: GMT + 1 (GMT + 2 from last Sunday in March to Saturday before last Sunday in October). Electricity: 220 volts AC, 50Hz. Telephone IDD is available. Country code: 381. Outgoing international code: 99. Mobile telephone GSM 900/1800 networks provide coverage in main towns. Network operators include Mobtel (website: www.mobtel.com), Mobilna Telefonija Sribje (website: www.telekom.yu), Monet (website: www.monetcg.com) and Promonte (website: www.promonte.com). Fax Transmissions are available to and from Western Europe. Internet ISPs include Infosky (website: www.infosky.net). Internet cafes can be found in the main urban centres. Post Postal services within Serbia and Montenegro are reasonably good. Press The main local newspapers and magazines, in decreasing order of circulation, are Politika (Belgrade), Vecernje Novosti (Belgrade) and Politika Ekspres (Belgrade). BBC World Service and Voice of America frequencies: From time to time these change. BBC (website: www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice): MHz 17.64 12.10 9.410 6.195 Voice of America (website: www.voa.gov): MHz 15.21 11.82 9.760 1.197 Note: CNN is also available via satellite (Astra) in a number of Belgrade and Montenegrin (Adriatic Coast) hotels. Passport/Visa   Passport Required? Visa Required? Return Ticket Required? British Yes 1 No Australian Yes 1 No Canadian Yes 1 No USA Yes 1 No OtherEU Yes 1 No Japanese Yes 2 No Restricted entry and transit: Nationals of Malaysia and Taiwan (China) will be refused admission and transit through the country. PASSPORTS: Valid passport required by all. VISAS: Required by all except the following: (a) 1. Up to 31 March 2003, nationals mentioned in the chart above (Japan for three months) and nationals of Croatia, the Czech Republic, Korea (Rep), New Zealand, Norway, Poland, Singapore and Switzerland can enter the country without a visa, providing their visit is for tourist purposes only. They will be issued a tourist pass on arrival, valid for 30 days, which costs approximately £3; (b) nationals of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Hungary, Macedonia and Romania for stays of up to 30 days. Types of visa and cost: Visit, Business and Transit. Fees vary according to nationality of applicant. For nationals of the UK, the fees are as follows. Single-entry/exit or transit: £17. Double-entry/exit or transit: £32. Multiple-entry/exit or transit: £45 (six months). Validity: Visas are valid for one month from date of issue and cannot be postdated. Transit visas are valid for seven days (to be used within six months of issue). Application to: Consular section at Embassy (see Contact Addresses section). Tourist passes can be issued at the border, or on arrival, for all eligible nationals (see above). However, as regulations are subject to change, travellers are advised to check with the Embassy prior to departure. Application requirements: (a) Completed application form (stating whether single- or double-entry or exit visa is required and giving the length of stay). (b) Valid passport. (c) Letter of invitation authorised by the Yugoslav authorities. (d) Fee payable to Embassy in cash or by postal order (cheques will only be accepted from travel agencies, firms and companies). Business visas: (a)-(d) and, (e) Letter of invitation from host company or evidence of self-employment. Note: (a) Visitors not staying at hotels must register with the police within three days of arrival. (b) Those who require visas may be asked to produce a return ticket. Working days required: One. Postal applications: Seven days. Temporary residence: Enquire at Embassy. Money Currency: The official currency in Serbia is the New Yugoslav Dinar. New Yugoslav Dinar (N.Din) = 100 paras. Notes are in denominations of N.Din5000, 1000, 200, 100, 20 and 10. Coins are in denominations of N.Din1, and 50, 20 and 10 paras. The official currency in Montenegro is the Euro. Euro (€) = 100 cents. Notes are in denominations of €500, 200, 100, 50, 20, 10 and 5. Coins are in denominations of €2 and 1, and 50, 20, 10, 5, 2 and 1 cents. Currency exchange: As elsewhere in the ex-Yugoslav republics, the only true repositories of value and frequently exchanged currencies are the Euro and the US Dollar (the Pound Sterling is rarely used in the republic). Money should be exchanged through official exchange offices only. Credit & debit cards: Visa, Mastercard and Amex are usually accepted. Travellers cheques: Although acceptable in theory, in practice these can be very hard to exchange. It is advisable to take hard currency and credit or debit cards. Currency restrictions: The import of foreign currency is unlimited provided declared upon arrival. The export of foreign currency is limited to €2000 or the amount imported. Any money not declared when leaving the country may be confiscated. The import and export of local currency is limited to N.Din120,000. Exchange rate indicators The following figures are included as a guide to the movement of the New Yugoslav Dinar and the Euro against Sterling and the US Dollar: Date May ’02 Aug ’02 Nov ’02 Feb ’03 £1.00= 95.35 94.74 96.48 93.07 $1.00= 65.43 62.29 61.01 58.45 Date May ’02 Aug ’02 Nov ’02 Feb ’03 €1= £0.63 £0.64 £0.63 £0.68 €1= $0.92 $0.97 $1.00 $1.08 Banking hours: Mon-Fri 0700-1500, Sat 0800-1400. Duty Free The following items may be imported into Serbia and Montenegro by persons 16 years of age and over without incurring customs duty: 200 cigarettes or 50 cigars or 250g of tobacco; 1l of wine and spirits; 250ml of eau de toilette; a reasonable quantity of perfume. Public Holidays Nov 29 2002 Republic Day. Jan 1 2003 New Year’s Day. Jan 7 Orthodox Christmas Day. Apr 25 Orthodox Good Friday. Apr 27 Statehood Day. Apr 28 Orthodox Easter Monday. May 1-2 Labour Days. May 9 Victory Day. Nov 29 Republic Day. Jan 1 2004 New Year’s Day. Jan 7 Orthodox Christmas Day. Apr 9 Orthodox Good Friday. Apr 12 Orthodox Easter Monday. Apr 27 Statehood Day. May 1-2 Labour Days. May 9 Victory Day. Nov 29 Republic Day. Note: Orthodox Christian holidays may also be celebrated in most parts. Health   Special Precautions Certificate Required Yellow Fever No No Cholera No No Typhoid and Polio 1 N/A Malaria No N/A 1: Vaccination against typhoid is advised. Food & drink: Mains water is normally chlorinated, and whilst relatively safe may cause mild abdominal upsets. Bottled water is available and is advised for the first few weeks of the stay. Milk is pasteurised and dairy products are safe for consumption. Local meat, poultry, seafood, fruit and vegetables are generally considered safe to eat. Other risks: Hepatitis A may occur. Tularaemia has been reported recently in the Kosovo area and travellers are advised to boil all water and be cautious about food preparation. Crimean congo haemorrhagic fever is endemic in Kosovo. Tick-borne encephalitis and typhus occur. Rabies is present. For those at high risk, vaccination before arrival should be considered. If you are bitten, seek medical advice without delay. For more information, see the Health appendix. Health care: Doctors are well trained but medical facilities are limited. Many medicines and basic medical supplies are often unavailable. Hospitals usually require payment in hard currency. Prescribed medicines must be paid for. Health insurance with emergency repatriation is essential. Visitors may be asked to pay first and seek reimbursement later. Travel - International Note: Foreign travellers should not visit Kosovo unless on essential business, owing to the current political climate. For further information, consult a government travel advice department (see box at beginning of section for contact details). AIR: The national airline is Yugoslav Airlines (JU) (website: www.jatlondon.com) which flies to destinations including New York, London, Frankfurt/M and Brussels. Montenegro Airlines (website: www.montenegro-airlines.cg.yu) flies from Podgorica to Budapest, Rome, Zurich, Ljubljana and Frankfurt/M and from Tivat to Dusseldorf. Airlines which serve Belgrade Airport include Alitalia, Austrian Airlines and Lufthansa. International airports: Belgrade (BEG) (Surcin) (website: www.airport-belgrade.co.yu) is 19km (12 miles) west of the city. Airport facilities include banks (0600-1800), bars, car hire and post offices. Smaller airports exist elsewhere, such as Podgorica (TGD) (formerly Titograd) in Montenegro. Departure tax: N.Din200. SEA: The principal passenger ports are Bar and Kotor, both in Montenegro. Ferries link the Yugoslav Adriatic coast with Italy, operating between Bar and Bari (Morfimare website: www.aziendeonline.it/morfimare/index.htm). RAIL: Rail services to Belgrade run from Croatia, Romania, Greece, Bulgaria and Turkey. Trains from western Europe travel via Budapest. For up-to-date information, contact Rail Europe (tel: (08705) 848 848; website: www.raileurope.co.uk). International trains have couchette coaches as well as bar and dining cars. On some lines, transport for cars is provided. Note: Train travel should be undertaken with care as assaults and robberies have been reported. ROAD: The following frontier posts are open for road traffic: From Croatia: Batrovci–Bajakovo. From Hungary: Hercegszanto–Backi Breg (Bezdan); Tompa–Kelebija; Szeged Roszke–Horgos; Bacsalmas–Bajmok; and Tiszasziget–Djala (both crossings for nationals of Yugoslavia and Hungary only). From Romania: Jimbolia–Srpska Crnja; Stamora Moravita–Vatin; Naidas–Kaludaerova (Bela Crkva); and Portile de Fier–(Turnu Severin)–Daerdap (Kladovo). From Bulgaria: Bregovo–Mokranje (Negotin); Kula–Vrska Cuka (Zajecar); Kalotina–Gradina; Otomanci–Ribarci; Kjustendil–Deve Bair (Kriva Palanka); Blagoevgrad–Delcevo; and Petric–Novo Selo. From Albania: Podgradec–Cafa San (Struga); and Kukes–Vrbnica. From Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia: Presevo–Tabanovce; and Djeneral–Jankovic. Nearly all the passes mentioned above are open 24 hours a day. Bus: Connections are available to Belgrade from destinations including Budapest, Lyon, Munich, Paris, Thessaloniki and Zurich. See Travel – Internal section for information regarding documentation and regulations and Passport/Visa section for further information on entry restrictions. Travel - Internal AIR: Yugoslav Airlines (JU) and Montenegro Airlines both offer connections between Belgrade and Podgorica. Departure tax: N.Din240. RAIL: Internal rail services are generally poor. Services are often overbooked, unreliable and unsafe. Destinations accessible by rail include Subotica, Novi Sad, Belgrade, Nis, Pristina and Bar. For further information, contact Belgrade Coach Station (tel: (11) 644 455). ROAD: Drivers should not rely on local petrol stations for fuel, owing to shortages of oil, although hard currency might make otherwise rationed and scarce petrol available. Spare parts are very difficult to obtain. Driving at night is not advisable, owing to the poor condition of the roads. Coach: Efficient and cheap coaches used to connect all towns. The fuel shortages have restricted the services severely. Taxi: Main cities have metered taxis. Car hire: Available from airports and main towns. Regulations: Traffic drives on the right. Speed limits are 120kph (75mph) on motorways and 100kph (62mph) on other roads. Road signs may be poorly marked and new signs are likely to be in Cyrillic script in some areas of the country. Documentation: Full national driving licence is accepted. No customs documents are required but car log books and a Green Card are necessary. Third party insurance can be taken out at the border when travelling to Kosovo. URBAN: There are good bus services in the main towns, with tramways and trolleybuses in Belgrade. Multi-journey tickets are available and are sold in advance through tobacconists. The passenger punches the ticket in a machine on board. Fares paid to the driver are at double the pre-purchase prices. TRAVEL TIMES: The following chart gives approximate travel times (in hours and minutes) from Belgrade to other major cities/towns in Serbia and Montenegro. Air Road Rail Bar - 7.00 6.00 Podgorica 0.30 6.00 5.30 Accommodation HOTELS: Deluxe/A-class hotels are confined to Belgrade and a number of Montenegrin Adriatic resorts, most notably the exclusive island of Sveti Stefan. Further down the scale, and particularly in the smaller towns, services are poor. The best hotels are always heavily booked, so advance booking is essential. Prices are very high, and payable in hard currency for visiting foreign nationals. Also, the Montenegrin resorts may be overcrowded, following the closure of the Croatian coastline to all Serbian and Montenegrin nationals. Grading: Classification is from deluxe to A, B, C and D class. Pensions: First-, second- and third-class pensions are available throughout the country. Inns: Motels are found on most main roads. Prices are set independently according to region, tourist season and the quality of service. There is a N.Din60 per day residence charge. GUEST-HOUSES: Many people offer rooms, often with meals, to visitors in villages without hotels. Discounts are available off-season. Contact tourist offices or travel agencies for details. SELF-CATERING: Holiday villages are available in many resorts as well as a selection of apartments and villas. Travel agencies and tourist offices have further information. CAMPING/CARAVANNING: Only available on official sites. A permit from the local tourist office is required for off-site camping. A list is available from the National Tourism Organisation. Alpine Club mountain huts are available in all mountain areas. Note: Caravans are allowed in duty free for up to one year. YOUTH HOSTELS: For information, contact Hostelling International Yugoslavia (website: www.hostels.org.yu) or the Ministry of Tourism of Serbia (see Contact Addresses section). Serbia The largest of the republics that made up the former Yugoslavia, Serbia was under Turkish rule and many traces of Muslim influence remain, particularly in the Kosovo-Metohija region. Belgrade is the capital of Serbia and the national capital. Its strategic location on the edge of the Carpathian Basin near the joining of the Sava River and the Danube and also its position on the Stambul Road from Turkey into Central Europe made it a centre of commerce and communications. Many of the buildings were constructed after World War II. The Kalemegdan Citadel straddles a hilltop overlooking the junction of the Sava and the Danube. The National Museum is interesting, and there is also the Museum of Modern Art and the Ethnographical Museum. Well worth a visit is the Palace of Princess Ljubica (1831) with a good collection of period funiture. Skadarlija is the 19th-century Bohemian quarter with cafes, street performers, art galleries and antique shops. Near Kraljevo is the restored Monastery of Zica, now painted bright red as it was in Medieval times. It was there that the Kings of Serbia were crowned. The Kalenic Monastery is a fine example of Serbian style. Montenegro Montenegro is at the southern end of Yugoslavia’s coast, an area of spectacular mountain ranges with villages perched like eagles’ nests on high peaks. This stands in direct contrast to the republic’s coastal region, which extends from the Gulf of Kotor to the Albanian border. Kotor itself is a bustling port with a picturesque old city quarter. The general architecture is mainly of Venetian origin, as this power dominated the region until 1797. Entering the city through the town gate brings the visitor to the square with the 17th-century Clock Tower, overshadowed by the twin towers of the Cathedral of St Tryphon (12th century). A visit to the Naval Museum and the Church of St Lucas (1195) should not be missed. Sport & Activities Watersports: Fishing permits are available from hotels or local authorities. Local information is necessary. Fishing on the Adriatic coast is unrestricted, but freshwater angling and fishing with equipment needs a permit. Sailing is popular along the coast. Berths and boats can be hired at all ports. Permits are needed for boats brought into the country. The Tara River in Durmitor National Park provides excellent facilities for white-water rafting. Other: Both skiing and spa resorts exist in all regions, but particularly in Kopaonik and Brezovica (Serbia). The hiking is good, particularly in Durmitor National Park. Football is a popular spectator sport. Social Profile Food & Drink: Cuisine varies greatly from one region to another. On the whole, the meat specialities are better than the fish dishes. National favourites include pihtije (jellied pork or duck), prsut (smoked ham), cevapcici (charcoal-grilled minced meat), raznjici (skewered meat), and sarma or japrak (vine or cabbage leaves stuffed with meat and rice). Desserts are heavy and sweet including strukli (nuts and plums stuffed into cheese balls and then boiled), lokum (Turkish Delight) and alva (nuts crushed in honey). Table service is usual in hotel restaurants. Wine is widely available and cheap. Ljutomer, Traminer and Riesling wines from Montenegro are the best known. Varieties include Dingac, Postup, Krstac and Vranac. The white Vugava produced in Vis is excellent. Popular national spirits are slivovica (a potent plum brandy), loza and maraskino (made of morello cherries). Bars and cafes have counter and table service. Most places serving alcohol close by 2200. Nightlife: Cinemas stay open until 2300, nightclubs to 0300 and restaurants until 2400. Shopping: Special purchases include embroidery, lace, leatherwork, Pec filigree work, metalwork and Turkish coffee sets. Shopping hours: Mon-Fri 0800-1200 and 1700-2000, Sat 0800-1500 (many shops are open all day Sat). Special Events: The following is a selection of the major festivals and other special events celebrated in Serbia and Montenegro in 2003: 28 Feb-9 Mar Film Festival, Belgrade. Apr Herceg Novi Theatre Festival; Belgrade Marathon. Jun Medieval Music Festival, Budva. Jul-Aug Festival of Arts, Budva; Book Fair, Herceg Novi; Summer Festival, Belgrade. Aug Film Festival, Herceg Novi. Sep Belgrade International Film Festival. Note: Many major cities throughout the country hold theatre festivals in October. Social Conventions: Hitherto a relatively open, informal and secure society, Serbia and Montenegro is now changing for the worse following the impact of war. Once virtually non-existent, violent crime is now relatively common in the big cities. There are some restrictions on photography. Tipping: Ten per cent is expected by hotels, restaurants and taxis. Business Profile Economy: Economic sanctions imposed against Yugoslavia throughout much of the 1990s had a considerable effect on the economy despite extensive smuggling – much of it organised by the recently deposed Milosevic government. The effects were most marked in industry and certain service industries. In the industrial sector, the mining industry, which has proved more resilient than many, produced coal, copper ores and bauxite. Smaller amounts of iron ore, zinc, oil and natural gas were also produced. The principal manufacturing products were vehicles, machinery, cement and steel; these were severely affected by sanctions through a loss of export markets and the inability to import key components essential to keeping the factories in operation. Agriculture is now mainly geared to producing subsistence crops for internal consumption. Maize, wheat, sugar beet and potatoes are the main crops. Fruit and vegetables are also important. Tourism, the main service industry, collapsed with the onset of the civil war, and has yet to recover. Political isolation and the Government’s uncertain economic strategies led to a serious economic decline: in the early 1990s, output fell by 45 per cent between 1990 and 1995. Few figures are available for subsequent years, but it is likely that the economy suffered a similar contraction over the rest of the decade, accompanied by growing unemployment. NATO’s intervention destroyed much of Yugoslavia’s infrastructure and its major industrial plants. With the installation of the Kostunica government in September 2000, economic prospects became much brighter as sanctions were lifted and Yugoslavia recovered access to international markets and capital. Good progress is being made in restoring the economy: GDP grew by 15 per cent in 2000 and the demise of Milosevic also unlocked a substantial aid package, worth about US$3 billion, from the EU. The structure of the restored, and as of 2003 renamed, Serbian and Montenegrin economy will be very different from the pre-war version as service industries supplant the heavy industrial operations which were the core of the old Yugoslav economy. Business: As with Croatia, but unlike Slovenia, things go very slowly or not at all on account of the cumbersome bureaucracy and general socio-economic collapse. Communication, however, is not a major problem, as English is popular as a second language. Office hours: Mon-Fri 0700/0800-1500/1600. Commercial Information: The EU ban on new investment in Serbia and Montenegro has recently been lifted. The following organisations should be able to offer advice: Yugoslav Chamber of Commerce and Industry, Terazije 23, 11000 Belgrade (tel: (11) 324 8222; fax: (11) 324 8754; e-mail: info@pkj.co.yu; website: www.pkj.co.yu); or Serbia Chamber of Commerce and Industry, ul. Generala Zdanova 13, 11000 Belgrade (tel: (11) 323 3955 or 323 4467; fax: (11) 323 0949; e-mail: centar@pks.co.yu; website: www.pks.co.yu); or Chamber of Economy of Montenegro, Foreign Economic Relations Sector, ul. Novaka Miloseva 11, 81000 Podgorica (tel: (81) 230 545 or 230 714; fax: (81) 230 943; website: www.pkcg.org). Climate Serbia has a continental climate with cold winters and warm summers. Montenegro is largely the same, but with alpine conditions in the mountains and a Mediterranean climate on the Adriatic coast. Required clothing: In winter, mediumweight clothing and heavy overcoat; in summer, lightweight clothing and raincoat required. History and Government History: In 2002, the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia was formally dissolved by its two remaining constituent republics. It is now officially entitled ‘Serbia & Montenegro’. For convenience and ease of understanding, it is still described here as ‘Yugoslavia. The history of Yugoslavia (and indeed of the Balkan area) is exceedingly complex, as it is a region that has long been prey to the ambitions of its neighbours on every side, from the Ancient Greeks to the Austro-Hungarian Empire of the Habsburgs. The occupation of the Balkans by itinerant Slavic peoples was completed by around 650 AD. One of these, the Serbs, came intermittently under the hegemony of the Byzantine Empire. Slovenia and Croatia resisted orthodox Byzantium, maintaining a Roman Catholic identity. Unity amongst the fractious Serbian clans was not achieved until the end of the 11th century, with the Serbian expansion into Montenegro where the independent state of Zeta was established in 1081. The ground for repeated future conflict was laid at this time largely by the region’s significance as a dividing line between Eastern Orthodoxy and the Western Roman Catholic Church. The 14th century marked the zenith of the Serbian Orthodox Church, which was instrumental in forming national culture and identity. In June 1389, a decisive confrontation took place that would settle the fate of the region for centuries to come and serve as the key symbol in Serbian national consciousness. This was the Battle of Kosovo in southern Serbia, in which an allied force of Serbs and Bosnians was defeated by the advancing Ottoman Turks. Serbia thereafter became an Ottoman vassal state. In the 15th century, Serbia and Bosnia were definitively conquered by the Turks and incorporated into the Ottoman Empire. In the 18th century, Ottoman power began its long decline in Europe but it was not until the 1860s that Turkish troops left the territory. Serbia then signed a series of secret alliances with Montenegro, Romania and Greece, with the aim of bolstering its own security. The Serbia-Greece pact was particularly important, as it settled the ownership of disputed territories – Bosnia and Herzegovina went to Serbia, while Thessaly and Epirus were taken by the Greeks. Another insurrection in 1876, followed by a declaration of war on Turkey, led to another Serbian defeat. However, a new player in the region, the Austrians, offered protection to the Serbs and prevented them from falling under Turkish suzerainty again. The Balkan republics now started to assume their modern form. Bosnia and Herzegovina merged in 1876. Two years later, the new republic was occupied by the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Serbian independence was settled at the Treaty of Berlin in 1878, where Montenegro was also recognised as an independent state and was doubled in size. In the first years of the 1900s, however, the Serbian-Habsburg relationship began to sour and by 1905, Serbian policy had become avowedly nationalist and anti-Austrian. The next few years leading up to the outbreak of World War I brought a marked and rapid deterioration in the stability of the region, as the main players – including Serbia, Turkey, Bulgaria and Greece – entered into a series of shifting and short-lived alliances and collapsed into two brief Balkan wars in 1912 and 1913. Several territorial disputes were settled as a result, although one important contention – the future of Albania as an independent country – was not. This issue, plus the Austrian presence in Bosnia-Herzegovina, brought the simmering friction between Serbia and the Habsburgs suddenly to a head in June 1914, with the assassination of the Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand by a Serb revolutionary, Gavrilo Princip, in the Bosnian capital of Sarajevo. Austria-Hungary treated the issue as a matter of national honour, as well as seeing an opportunity to deal with the Serbs once and for all. On 28 July 1914, war was declared. Serbia was occupied by enemy forces for much of the next three years, however, after the end of the war and the political settlement that followed, the Balkan republics concluded that some form of unity would be conducive to their future security. The ‘Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes’ was formed in 1918, from the Kingdom of Serbia and the southern Slav states of the former Austro-Hungarian Empire (Croatia, Slovenia and Bosnia-Herzegovina). The kingdom was renamed Yugoslavia in 1929. In 1941, the Germans and Italians invaded the country. During the ensuing struggle, which lasted until almost the end of World War II in 1945, the Communist Party of Yugoslavia under Josip Broz (known as Tito) gained wide support for its partisan activities and Tito took power in 1945. The country suffered appallingly during World War II – over one million people died, largely in as part of a genocide of Serbs committed by the Croatian clerico-fascist Ustasa in Bosnia-Herzegovina. In 1946, a Soviet-style constitution was adopted but Yugoslavia was expelled from the Soviet alliance (the Cominform) two years later. New constitutions adopted in 1953, 1963 and 1974 extended this autonomy throughout the social and economic sphere, despite evidence that its results left much to be desired. The amended constitutions also gave considerable autonomy to the country’s constituent republics. During this period, Yugoslavia’s foreign policy was rigorously non-aligned, which attracted much interest, particularly from countries that sought to escape the influence of one or other superpower. Internally, ethnic divisions were suppressed, although not extinguished. Yugoslavia was a founder and subsequently a prominent member of the Non-Aligned Movement. Following Tito’s death in 1980, however, Yugoslavian foreign policy became irrelevant, as the rotating collective presidency that Tito had designed to replace him became increasingly concerned with holding the country together and preventing chronic economic decline. The disparity between the comparatively richer northern republics of Slovenia and Croatia and the rest of the country became a major source of friction, as the two wealthier republics increasingly questioned the use and distribution of central funds – to which they were the sole net contributors. Friction between the country’s republics and different ethnic groups, suppression of which had been the key to Tito’s longevity, also came to the fore. The disintegration of Yugoslavia began in the spring of 1990, when Slovenia and Croatia both held multiparty elections, which returned governments committed to the pursuit of outright independence. After 14 months, during which time Slovenia and Croatia became increasingly alienated from Belgrade, Slovenia declared independence. The federal government launched a half-hearted and ineffectual military campaign against the Slovenes. After a few weeks of inconclusive skirmishing, a ceasefire was concluded, under which the Slovenes obtained virtually everything they wanted; this put them on the path to full independence. Croatia was a different matter, especially after a strongly nationalist government led by Franjo Tudjman was elected in May 1990. In October, the Serb minority in the Croatian region of Krajina declared autonomy. Croatian forces tried to quell the secession and the Serb-led federal (i.e. national) army intervened on the side of the Serbs. The other Yugoslav republics staked out their positions: Montenegro backed Serbia; Macedonia pushed for independence; and in Bosnia-Herzegovina, the three-way ethnic split (Muslim, Croat, Serb) gave rise to different aspirations for different ethnic groups. Bosnia was to prove the most difficult and tragic of the former Yugoslav republics (see Bosnia-Herzegovina and Croatia). In Serbia, Slobodan Milosevic, a former Communist Party apparatchik, had assumed effective power and had been consolidating his position by appealing to Serbian nationalist sentiments. This was to have dramatic consequences for the country. In 1995, a combination of high pressure US diplomacy and a change in fortunes on the battlefield brought about a political settlement in Bosnia. With the Bosnia issue settled, Milosevic’s main priority was now the deteriorating political and economic situation at home. Sanctions and the dearth of reforms undertaken by the Belgrade government, left the rump Yugoslavia – now reduced to the former republics of Serbia and Montenegro – assailed by high inflation, lack of funds (and hence non-payment of wages), a declining currency and other monetary problems. Federal parliamentary elections fell due in November 1996. Milosevic’s Socialists won comfortably and Milosevic himself won the presidential election by a substantial majority five months later. Elections to the separate assemblies in Montenegro (Yugoslavia’s other autonomous republic) and Vojvodina (an autonomous province of Serbia, with a substantial ethnic Hungarian population) produced the expected results. However, in Kosovo, the other autonomous province of Serbia, which has a 90% ethnic Albania population, Belgrade had abolished its autonomous status along with the regional assembly. The Kosovan Albanian community was divided between supporters of non-violent political opposition and armed insurrection en route to full independence. Belgrade adopted a hard line, with Milosevic playing the nationalist card once again and appealing to the historic battles between the Serbs and the Ottoman Turks in the 14th century. As a result, the militants gained the support of most Kosovan Albanians through 1996. Then in 1997, the Albanians’ ill-equipped and embryonic Kosovan Liberation Army (KLA) received a fortuitous boost in the form of a small arms bonanza after the collapse of central government authority in Albania itself (see Albania). The response of the Serbian authorities was a policy of ethnic cleansing, which brought down the wrath of the US. After the failure of an attempted political settlement (the Rambouillet accord), the US began a bombing campaign against Serbia. Meanwhile hundreds of thousands of Kosovan Albanians were driven or over the borders into Albania and Macedonia. By June 1999, the Serbs had had enough. With much of their infrastructure and key industrial complexes in ruins, they agreed to pull their forces out of Kosovo. They were joined by most Kosovan Serbs who feared the vengeance of the returning Albanian refugees. A NATO peacekeeping force, augmented by a small Russian contingent, moved in to maintain a semblance of order. At present, the Albanian population of Kosovo can rely on UN troops for basic security plus a few minor administrative structures, although it mostly functions through a system of local potentates and an extensive black economy linked to neighbouring Albania. Meanwhile, in Belgrade, hopes that the war would prove terminal for Milosevic seemed premature, as the political opposition – after initially unifying in a concerted effort to force him from office – fatally failed to coalesce. But Milsosevic had lost crucial allies in the political, military and security establishments; the opposition moved carefully, ensuring that it had the support of key sectors in the state apparatus before taking over. The elections of September 2000 – even allowing for some manipulation by Milosevic supporters – confirmed the massive support it enjoyed among the population. After some desultory attempts to claim the election, Milosevic ceded power amid demonstrations of support throughout the country for the electoral victor, Vojislav Kostunica. The following year, Milsosevic was arrested and extradited to the International War Crimes Tribunal in The Hague, where his trial, which began in February 2002, was still in progress a year later. The Kostunica government has just started the process of reconstruction at home and restoring Yugoslavia’s credibility abroad. The country has joined (or re-joined) the UN and other international bodies. Domestic progress has been more difficult, however. The economy is in poor shape, with both inflation and unemployment at high levels. Promised injections of foreign aid have yet to materialise. The status of Kosovo is still uncertain, while the tiny republic of Montenegro continues to contemplate full independence. Presidential elections in Montenegro in early 2003 were twice annulled, after failing to satisfy the condition that a minimum of half the electorate should vote. This was the result of a boycott organised by pro-independence parties, who believe it the best means of forcing a final split from Serbia. This Balkan saga still has some mileage left in it. Government: The Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, comprising Serbia and Montenegro, was established in April 1992. Under the provisions of the constitution introduced the same year, legislative power rests with the bicameral Federal Assembly comprising the 40-member Chamber of Republics (20 representatives each from Serbia and Montenegro) and the 138-member Chamber of Citizens (directly elected, from Serbia and Montenegro). The Federal Assembly elects the President of the Republic. Both Serbia and Montenegro also have their own assemblies, as does the Serbian province of Vojvodina. Copyright © 2003 Columbus Publishing Ltd.